蒙古入侵 - 1241年蒙古人击败匈牙利后为何撤军？他们本可以留下来征服整个欧洲吗？
正文翻译
Mongol invasion - After the Mongols defeated Hungary in 1241, why did they leave? Couldn't they have stayed to conquer all of Europe?
蒙古入侵——1241年蒙古人击败匈牙利后为何撤军？他们本可以留下来征服整个欧洲吗？
The 1241 Mongol campaign was launched specifically against the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a punishment for the Hungarians for admitting the Cumans into their country, a Turkic people who had been decisively defeated by Mongol generals Subutai and Jebe in 1239. In 1240, Batu Khan sent an ultimatum to King Béla IV of Hungary to stop harboring the Cumans, threatening with an invasion if he wouldn’t comply. Béla refused Batu’s demands, however he wasn’t fully aware of the military power of the Mongols.
1241年的蒙古远征专门针对匈牙利王国，这是对匈牙利接纳库曼人的惩罚——库曼人是一个突厥族群，于1239年被蒙古将领速不台和哲别彻底击败。1240年，拔都汗向匈牙利国王贝拉四世发出最后通牒，要求其停止庇护库曼人，否则将发动入侵。贝拉拒绝了拔都的要求，但他并未充分了解蒙古人的军事实力。
I have been informed that you have taken the Cumans, my servants, under your patronage. Therefore I advise you not to keep them in your lands, so that I do not become your enemy because of them. It is easier for the Cumans to escape; since they wander with their tents, so maybe they could avoid me, but you live in houses, you have castles and cities, how could you escape from me?!
(Batu Khan’s letter to King Béla IV)
“朕已获悉，你将朕的属民库曼人纳入庇护之下。因此朕奉劝你不要将他们留在你的领土上，以免朕因他们而成为你的敌人。库曼人易于逃脱，他们带着帐篷四处迁徙，或许能避开朕，但你居住在房屋中，拥有城堡与城市，又怎能逃过朕的手掌？！”
（拔都汗致贝拉四世国王的信函）
In the spring of 1241, the Mongols led by Batu attacked Hungary from several directions. Orda Khan attacked from the north through Hungary’s ally Poland, defeating Polish duke Henry II at Legnica, thus preventing Polish and Hungarian forces to unite. Kadan invaded from the southeast through Transylvania, defeating the Transylvanian voivode, and advancing towards the Great Hungarian plain. Batu and Subutai invaded Hungary from the northeast through the Verecke Pass, annihilating the army of the Hungarian Palatine and marching towards the centre of the kingdom. King Béla IV ordered all his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of Pest. In the Hungarian camp, a riot broke out, in which Cuman leaders were massacred, causing the departure of the Cumans. The Mongols destroyed several Hungarian contingents before those could have reached Pest. Finally, King Béla could gather an army of 20,000 - 25,000 men, although some sources put the strength of the Hungarian army at 60,000 - 100,000. The Mongol army numbered at least 30,000 men, some sources give the number of Mongol soldiers invading Hungary in the range 50,000 - 120,000.
1241年春天，拔都率领的蒙古军从多个方向进攻匈牙利。斡儿答汗从北方穿过匈牙利的盟友波兰，在莱格尼察击败波兰公爵亨利二世，成功阻止波匈联军会合。合丹从东南方向经特兰西瓦尼亚入侵，击败特兰西瓦尼亚总督后向匈牙利大平原推进。拔都与速不台则从东北方向通过韦雷茨凯隘口入侵匈牙利，歼灭匈牙利宫相的军队后向王国中心进军。贝拉四世国王下令包括库曼人在内的所有军队集结于佩斯城，然而匈牙利军营中爆发骚乱，库曼族领袖惨遭屠杀，导致库曼人撤离。蒙古军在匈牙利多支分遣队抵达佩斯前将其击溃。最终，贝拉国王集结了一支2万至2.5万人的军队，不过部分史料记载匈牙利军队兵力可达6万至10万人；蒙古军至少有3万人，部分来源称入侵匈牙利的蒙古士兵人数在5万至12万之间。
As the Hungarian army, led by King Béla and his brother Duke Coloman, departed from Pest, the Mongols began to retreat to the northeast. The two armies eventually met at the river Sajó, where the Mongols defeated the Hungarians at the decisive Battle of Mohi. Nearly the entire Hungarian army was destroyed on the battlefield, while the Mongols also suffered heavy casualties. King Béla escaped from the battle thanks to a sacrifice of his brother Coloman who lured the Mongols towards Slavonia in the southwest, while Béla fled towards Pozsony (Bratislava) in the northwest. Most high dignitaries of the kingdom, including Palatine Denis Tomaj and both archbishops Ugrin Csák and Matthias Rátót died on the battlefield; Duke Coloman also died of his wounds shortly after the battle.
当贝拉国王与其弟科洛曼公爵率领匈牙利军队离开佩斯时，蒙古军开始向东北撤退。两军最终在绍约河相遇，蒙古人在决定性的莫希战役中击败匈牙利军。匈牙利军队几乎全军覆没，蒙古军也遭受了惨重伤亡。贝拉国王得以逃脱，归功于其弟科洛曼的牺牲——科洛曼将蒙古军引向西南方向的斯拉沃尼亚，而贝拉则向西北方向的普雷斯堡（今布拉迪斯拉发）逃亡。王国多数高级官员，包括宫相丹尼斯·托马伊、乌格林·恰克大主教与马蒂亚斯·拉托特大主教均战死沙场，科洛曼公爵也在战后不久因伤去世。
After the Mongols defeated the Hungarian royal army, they proceeded to devastate Hungary, exterminating one-quarter of the country’s population, with the population of the Great Hungarian plain (an area of 100,000 sq km) almost entirely wiped out. The Hungarian capital Esztergom was destroyed in a vicious battle, the town would never regain its leading role. Transylvania also lay in ruins, the account of the eyewitness Rogerius of Apulia recounts the depopulated Maros (Mureș) valley, and the destroyed, deserted town of Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia. The surviving population of Hungary took refugee in the forests, marshes, and mountains. As harvest time approached, the Mongols managed to lure a part of them out by issuing false reports in the name of King Béla. They forced the returning population to do the agricultural work for them.
蒙古人击败匈牙利王室军队后，随即对匈牙利展开蹂躏，导致该国四分之一人口丧生，面积达10万平方公里的匈牙利大平原人口几乎灭绝。匈牙利首都埃斯泰尔戈姆在一场惨烈战役中被毁，此后再也未能恢复其主导地位。特兰西瓦尼亚也沦为一片废墟，目击者阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯记载，穆列什河谷变得荒无人烟，久拉费海尔瓦里（今阿尔巴尤利亚）镇被摧毁并遭遗弃。匈牙利幸存者逃入森林、沼泽和山区，收获季节来临时，蒙古人以贝拉国王的名义散布虚假消息，诱使部分幸存者走出避难所，并强迫他们为自己从事农业劳作。
It was harvest time, they brought in the grain, hay, and straw, and put them in the barn. The Tartars [Mongol] stood by us and were amused that the father would redeem his life at the price of his beautiful daughter. They found a special pleasure in making love with the women in the presence of the father or husband. They rewarded those who brought them nice girls
(Carmen miserabile super destructione regni Hungariae per Tartaros, Rogerius of Apulia)
“正值收获时节，我们收割谷物、干草与麦秸并存入谷仓。鞑靼人（蒙古人）在一旁围观，对父亲愿以美貌女儿为代价赎回性命的行为嗤之以鼻。他们尤其乐于在女子的父亲或丈夫面前与其交合，并奖赏那些为他们带来漂亮女孩的人。”
（《鞑靼人摧毁匈牙利王国哀歌》，阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯著）
In the winter of 1241, the Mongols crossed the frozen Danube and laid waste to western Hungary, reaching the Adriatic coast in Croatia, and the Austrian border. However, unable to catch King Béla IV, who resided in Trogir, Croatia, the Mongols left Hungary in 1242, taking a great number of captives with them. The 1241–1242 Mongol invasion marked a significant turning point in Hungarian history. The Kingdom of Hungary had to be rebuilt and reorganized, and the era of the Árpád dynasty, that ruled Hungary since c. 900 AD, soon came to an end. King Béla IV is still called “second founder of the country”, to indicate the scale of destruction the Mongol invasion caused.
1241年冬天，蒙古军渡过结冰的多瑙河，蹂躏了匈牙利西部，直抵克罗地亚的亚得里亚海岸与奥地利边境。但由于未能捕获躲在克罗地亚特罗吉尔的贝拉四世国王，蒙古人于1242年撤离匈牙利，带走了大量俘虏。1241至1242年的蒙古入侵成为匈牙利历史的重要转折点，匈牙利王国不得不进行重建与重组，自公元900年左右开始统治匈牙利的阿尔帕德王朝也很快走向终结。贝拉四世国王至今仍被称为“国家第二缔造者”，这一称号彰显了蒙古入侵造成的破坏规模。
Battle of Muhi memorial in eastern Hungary
匈牙利东部的莫希战役纪念碑
Josip Almasi
约瑟普·阿尔马西
To defeat and to conquer are two very different things. Mongols have defeated Hungarian armies, but have never actually conquered Hungary.
击败与征服是截然不同的两回事。蒙古人击败了匈牙利军队，却从未真正征服匈牙利。
The king fled, first to Austria, where he was imprisoned and ransomed, then to Croatia, followed by 10,000 angry Mongols.
They tried but failed to storm Klis fortress, only to learn that the king is on some island.
国王一路逃亡，先逃至奥地利并被囚禁后赎回，随后前往克罗地亚，一万名愤怒的蒙古军紧随其后。
他们试图猛攻克利斯要塞却以失败告终，之后才得知国王躲在某座岛上。
Klis fortress, near Split, Croatia - wikipedia
But look at that picture, how does cavalry attack that? Not to mention the island.
克利斯要塞，位于克罗地亚斯普利特附近——维基百科
但看看那张图片，骑兵该如何进攻这样的要塞？更不用说进攻岛屿了。
And there were many of fortresses all around the kingdom that they could barely approach. Two years after the defeat, some 80 fortresses still stood unconquered.
To actually conquer the country, they had to get the king, and then either make him submit, or kill the entire dynasty and install the loyal one, as they did in China, and elsewhere.
而且王国境内还有许多蒙古人几乎无法接近的要塞，战败两年后，仍有约80座要塞未被攻克。
要真正征服一个国家，他们必须擒获国王，要么迫使他臣服，要么消灭整个王朝并扶植忠于自己的政权，就像他们在中国及其他地区所做的那样。
As for why they left, sources are not in agreement. One version says because Great Khan died, the other says they didn’t even know about his death, but had to put down Cuman rebellion.
What sources do not care to mention, but is sure to have happened, is high attrition.
关于他们撤离的原因，史料记载不一。一种说法是大汗去世，另一种说法是他们甚至不知道大汗已死，而是必须回去镇压库曼人的叛乱。
史料不愿提及但肯定发生过的是，蒙古军遭受了极高的损耗。
They came with five armies, that’s roughly 50,000 men with up to 200,000 horses. They had almost no means to replenish their losses. They were free to roam the country without facing any opposition, but their armies were bogged down in endless sieges. And then, cold wet winter turned Hungarian plains into swamps, and they even lost pastures for their horses.
他们出动了五支军队，约5万人及多达20万匹马，几乎没有补充损失的途径。虽然他们可以在匈牙利境内自由驰骋而未遇抵抗，但军队却陷入了无休止的围城战。此外，寒冷潮湿的冬天将匈牙利平原变成了沼泽，他们甚至失去了马匹的牧场。
Once the invasion turned into war of attrition, it failed.
For the rest of his reign, the king had another 100 stone castles made, and Second Mongol invasion of Hungary ended in only two months.
一旦入侵变成消耗战，蒙古军便已失败。
在贝拉国王的剩余统治时期，他又下令建造了100座石制城堡，而第二次蒙古入侵匈牙利仅持续了两个月便以失败告终。
Aldarion Telcontar amateur historian with some formal education
阿尔达里翁·泰尔孔塔尔 受过一定正规教育的业余历史学家
Because, matter of the fact is, Mongols were unable to conquer even Hungary alone, let alone the rest of Europe.
事实上，蒙古人甚至无法单独征服匈牙利，更不用说欧洲其他地区了。
Mongols had won the Battle of Mohi in 1241, true. But they had suffered heavy casualties in doing so, and even more importantly, Hungarian resistance continued even after the defeat. King Bela IV had fled; and while fortifications in mainland Hungary were weak, they kept resisting to the last man. Mongols, even though victorious in most engagements, were piling on casualties - and unlike European perception of the time, they were not an innumerable horde. Even a victorious campaign was wearing them out.
蒙古人确实在1241年赢得了莫希战役，但也为此付出了惨重伤亡，更重要的是，匈牙利的抵抗在战败后仍在继续。贝拉四世国王已出逃，尽管匈牙利本土的防御工事薄弱，但守军仍坚持抵抗至最后一人。蒙古人虽然在大多数战斗中获胜，却不断累积伤亡——与当时欧洲人的认知不同，他们并非人数无穷的部落联盟，即便是胜利的战役也在不断消耗他们的实力。
And there were many failures as well. Many fortifications did manage to resist the Mongols.
此外，蒙古人还遭遇了诸多失败，许多防御工事成功抵御了他们的进攻。
This was why Mongols placed such a premium on capturing the enemy leader - had they done so, they could have forced Bela IV to order his commanders to surrender. But Bela IV had fled, and so Hungary kept resisting. Few in number and weak though they were, Hungary’s castles made Mongol stay in Hungary extremely uncomfortable. They were haemorrhaging men and time, and the very few stone castles present in the Hungary proper proved invulnerable to Mongol native siege techniques of the time. And once they arrived to southern Croatia, basically every hill had such a castle, or a well-fortified city. Split, Klis, Trogir and Šibenik either resisted the Mongol assault or Mongols gave up attempting to attack in the first place, and a minor Mongol detachment may have been destroyed at the Battle of Grobnik Field in an ambush.
这就是蒙古人如此重视擒获敌方领袖的原因——若能成功擒获贝拉四世，他们便能迫使他下令指挥官投降。但由于贝拉四世已出逃，匈牙利的抵抗得以持续。尽管匈牙利的城堡数量稀少且防御薄弱，却让蒙古人在匈牙利的驻军处境极为艰难。他们在人员和时间上不断遭受损失，而匈牙利本土仅有的几座石制城堡，被证明是当时蒙古人本土攻城技术无法攻克的。当他们抵达克罗地亚南部后，几乎每座山丘都有这样的城堡或防御坚固的城市，斯普利特、克利斯、特罗吉尔和希贝尼克要么成功抵御了蒙古人的进攻，要么蒙古人一开始就放弃了进攻尝试，一支蒙古小分遣队甚至可能在格罗布尼克原野战役中遭伏击被歼灭。
To put it simply, Hungary had proven too far away from Mongol mainland and too well fortified to be conquered by the Mongols. And Western Europe had all of these issues, but an order of magnitude worse. Instead of few stone castles and a mass of small wooden commital forts, Western Europe was a place where each hill had its own castle and each castle had its own hill. Few Western knights present at Mohi had inflicted heavy casualties on the Mongols, and Europe had far more heavy cavalry than the still primitive Hungary did. And European crossbow was a weapon that Mongols were extremely afraid of in particular - smaller than the Chinese version, but much better able to be used in sieges. All these factors meant that the Mongols decided to put a halt on any attempt at further westward expansion after their invasions of Hungary and Poland had failed - though Hungary would be invaded again in 1285, and Poland in 1259 and 1287, all to a resounding lack of success.
简而言之，匈牙利被证明距离蒙古本土过于遥远，且防御工事坚固，难以被蒙古人征服。而西欧不仅存在所有这些问题，情况还要严重一个量级。与匈牙利仅有少量石制城堡和大量小型木制封臣堡垒不同，西欧的每座山丘都有自己的城堡，每座城堡都占据一座山丘。参与莫希战役的少数西欧骑士给蒙古人造成了沉重伤亡，而且西欧的重骑兵数量远多于尚处原始阶段的匈牙利。此外，欧洲弩是蒙古人特别惧怕的武器——它比中国弩更小，却更适合用于围城战。所有这些因素意味着，在入侵匈牙利和波兰失败后，蒙古人决定停止进一步向西扩张的任何尝试——不过匈牙利在1285年、波兰在1259年和1287年再次遭到入侵，但均以彻底失败告终。
Robert Sarracino Ph.D., Physics
罗伯特·萨拉西诺 物理学博士
Europe would have most likely suffered ‘a nasty ravage’, but there were three major problems for the Mongols in trying to move west from Hungary: the lack of suitable fodder for Mongolian horses in forested Europe, the invincibility of stone fortresses to Mongol attacks, and the power of heavily armored European knights.
欧洲很可能会遭受“一场可怕的蹂躏”，但蒙古人从匈牙利向西推进面临三大主要问题：森林密布的欧洲缺乏适合蒙古马的饲料、石制城堡对蒙古人的进攻坚不可摧，以及全副武装的欧洲骑士战斗力强劲。
After Bela IV’s devastating defeat, in 1241–42, knowing that the Mongols would some day return, he instituted a number of military and social reforms. Among them, he began building stone fortresses, and increasing the number of armored knights in the military.
1241至1242年贝拉四世遭受惨败后，深知蒙古人终有一天会卷土重来，于是推行了一系列军事和社会改革，包括开始建造石制城堡，并增加军队中装甲骑士的数量。
Some 43 years later the Mongols returned, and this time, although as before the civilian population suffered heavily in eastern and central Hungary, the Mongols suffered a devastating defeat. Not one stone castle or city fell to the Mongols. Locally organized raids and sallies from these impregnable fortresses and cities caused havoc among the Mongols, and they finally retreated, their forces decimated.
约43年后，蒙古人果然再次入侵，这一次，尽管匈牙利东部和中部的平民仍遭受了沉重苦难，但蒙古人却遭遇了毁灭性的失败。没有一座石制城堡或城市被蒙古人攻占，来自这些坚不可摧的堡垒和城市的地方组织突袭与出击，给蒙古人造成了极大破坏，他们最终撤军，兵力损失惨重。
Martin Lloyd MA in History, Liverpool Hope University (Graduated 2014)
马丁·劳埃德 利物浦霍普大学历史学硕士（2014年毕业）
How easy do you think it is to conquer an entire continent?
你认为征服整个大陆是件容易的事吗？
It’s like saying after conquering Thailand that someone could then conquer all of Asia.
The Mongols defeated the Hungarian field army, plundered everywhere that wasn’t sufficiently well fortified, and was on their way out.
There’s a video outlining 4 main theories for why the Mongols left Europe.
这就好比说征服泰国后，就能接着征服整个亚洲一样。
蒙古人击败了匈牙利的野战军，洗劫了所有防御不够坚固的地方，随后便撤军了。
有一段视频概述了蒙古人撤离欧洲的四种主要理论。
Political - death of Ogedai Khan in December 1241 meant Batu Khan & Subutai had to leave to choose the next Great Khan (I don’t believe it - Batu Khan left Europe before he knew about it, and then actively avoided going for choosing the next Great Khan).
政治因素——1241年12月窝阔台汗去世，意味着拔都汗和速不台必须撤军返回参与推选下一任大汗（我不认同这一说法——拔都汗在得知窝阔台汗去世前就已离开欧洲，且之后主动回避了大汗推选）。
Ecological/Geographical - Mongols struggled with terrain for the journey, such as insufficient grassland for their livestock (I think the Mongols have handled worse).
生态/地理因素——蒙古人在行军途中受地形困扰，例如缺乏足够的牧场喂养牲畜（我认为蒙古人曾应对过更恶劣的情况）。
Limited Goals or Gradual Conquest - The Mongol invasion force was never really intended to conquer all of Europe (this I think is the most plausible - many of the places in Europe the Mongols attacked were in positions of weakness: Poland was fragmented, the Byzantine Empire had not recovered from the 1204 Sack of Constantinople and was in a civil war with the Latin Empire until at least 1260, Hungary made military reforms after the Mongol invasions that look like they were demilitarized before - so I think the Mongols were mostly taking advantage of weaker areas, they didn’t seem to try very hard to advance into the Holy Roman Empire).
目标有限或渐进式征服——蒙古入侵军从未真正打算征服整个欧洲（我认为这一说法最可信——蒙古人在欧洲进攻的许多地区都处于弱势地位：波兰四分五裂，拜占庭帝国尚未从1204年君士坦丁堡被洗劫的创伤中恢复，且与拉丁帝国的内战至少持续至1260年，匈牙利在蒙古入侵后推行的军事改革表明其此前近乎解除了武装——因此我认为蒙古人主要是在利用弱势地区，他们似乎并未全力向神圣罗马帝国推进）。
Military Weakness - Resistance & losses from the campaign caused the Mongols to stop the campaign (I think there’s a little bit of this - nobody defeated the Mongols, but Mohi was a near thing, and Legnica seemed to have Mongol casualties, they can win every battle and still be taking losses).
My view is the Mongol goal was never “conquer all of Europe at once.”
军事弱点——战役中的抵抗与损失导致蒙古人停止进攻（我认为这一因素有一定影响——虽然无人击败蒙古人，但莫希战役胜负仅在一线之间，莱格尼察战役中蒙古人似乎也出现伤亡，即便他们赢得每一场战斗，仍会遭受损失）。
我的观点是，蒙古人的目标从未是“一次性征服整个欧洲”。
Part of the Mongol success was they planned out their invasions meticulously, they conducted campaigns of espionage, they knew where they were going and why, they knew more about their foes than their foes knew of them, they knew the language (one trick was they sent people shouting to retreat in Hungarian, so presumably at least some of them knew the language, or they had sufficiently good control over people who did).
蒙古人成功的部分原因在于他们精心策划入侵行动，开展间谍活动，明确进军方向与目的，对敌人的了解远超敌人对他们的了解，还掌握了敌方语言（其中一个战术是派人大喊匈牙利语让敌军撤退，因此推测至少有部分蒙古人懂匈牙利语，或他们能充分掌控懂该语言的人）。
So they had done their homework before their invasions, they spent years. Just because they were so well-prepared to invade the places they did, doesn’t mean they were quite so well-prepared to invade the next kingdom. I think their encounters with the Holy Roman Empire were only probing strike - testing for weakness.
因此，他们在入侵前做了多年的准备工作。但这并不意味着，他们对已入侵地区准备充分，就对下一个王国也同样准备就绪。我认为他们与神圣罗马帝国的接触只是试探性进攻——旨在测试对方的弱点。
In short, the Mongols knew the weaknesses of most of their targets before they invaded, and so keeping up a rapid pace of invasion would mean neglecting many of the things that made them so successful.
简而言之，蒙古人在入侵前就了解大多数目标的弱点，因此保持快速入侵节奏意味着会忽略许多使其成功的关键因素。
Mats Andersson Common or Garden Armchair Historian
马茨·安德森 普通业余历史学家
No.
Their method of warfare was 100% dependent on horses. They could conquer any place with large amounts of grass. At the time, Central Europe was mostly forest, and could not sustain a marauding horde on horseback. Hungary is the westernmost place in Europe with large grass plains. The large forests of present-day Germany, or the Alps and Carpathians, were completely impassable to the Mongols.
不能。
他们的作战方式完全依赖马匹，只能征服拥有大量草地的地区。当时的中欧大部分地区为森林，无法养活一支骑马劫掠的部落联盟。匈牙利是欧洲最西端拥有大片草原的地区，如今德国的广阔森林、阿尔卑斯山脉和喀尔巴阡山脉，对蒙古人来说完全无法通行。
There were additional factors that ended their conquest, such as the death of the Great Khan, but even absence of those factors would not have meant presence of grass.
还有其他因素导致他们的征服终止，例如大汗去世，但即便没有这些因素，欧洲也缺乏足够的草地供其马匹生存。
蒙古入侵——1241年蒙古人击败匈牙利后为何撤军？他们本可以留下来征服整个欧洲吗？
The 1241 Mongol campaign was launched specifically against the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a punishment for the Hungarians for admitting the Cumans into their country, a Turkic people who had been decisively defeated by Mongol generals Subutai and Jebe in 1239. In 1240, Batu Khan sent an ultimatum to King Béla IV of Hungary to stop harboring the Cumans, threatening with an invasion if he wouldn’t comply. Béla refused Batu’s demands, however he wasn’t fully aware of the military power of the Mongols.
1241年的蒙古远征专门针对匈牙利王国，这是对匈牙利接纳库曼人的惩罚——库曼人是一个突厥族群，于1239年被蒙古将领速不台和哲别彻底击败。1240年，拔都汗向匈牙利国王贝拉四世发出最后通牒，要求其停止庇护库曼人，否则将发动入侵。贝拉拒绝了拔都的要求，但他并未充分了解蒙古人的军事实力。
I have been informed that you have taken the Cumans, my servants, under your patronage. Therefore I advise you not to keep them in your lands, so that I do not become your enemy because of them. It is easier for the Cumans to escape; since they wander with their tents, so maybe they could avoid me, but you live in houses, you have castles and cities, how could you escape from me?!
(Batu Khan’s letter to King Béla IV)
“朕已获悉，你将朕的属民库曼人纳入庇护之下。因此朕奉劝你不要将他们留在你的领土上，以免朕因他们而成为你的敌人。库曼人易于逃脱，他们带着帐篷四处迁徙，或许能避开朕，但你居住在房屋中，拥有城堡与城市，又怎能逃过朕的手掌？！”
（拔都汗致贝拉四世国王的信函）
In the spring of 1241, the Mongols led by Batu attacked Hungary from several directions. Orda Khan attacked from the north through Hungary’s ally Poland, defeating Polish duke Henry II at Legnica, thus preventing Polish and Hungarian forces to unite. Kadan invaded from the southeast through Transylvania, defeating the Transylvanian voivode, and advancing towards the Great Hungarian plain. Batu and Subutai invaded Hungary from the northeast through the Verecke Pass, annihilating the army of the Hungarian Palatine and marching towards the centre of the kingdom. King Béla IV ordered all his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of Pest. In the Hungarian camp, a riot broke out, in which Cuman leaders were massacred, causing the departure of the Cumans. The Mongols destroyed several Hungarian contingents before those could have reached Pest. Finally, King Béla could gather an army of 20,000 - 25,000 men, although some sources put the strength of the Hungarian army at 60,000 - 100,000. The Mongol army numbered at least 30,000 men, some sources give the number of Mongol soldiers invading Hungary in the range 50,000 - 120,000.
1241年春天，拔都率领的蒙古军从多个方向进攻匈牙利。斡儿答汗从北方穿过匈牙利的盟友波兰，在莱格尼察击败波兰公爵亨利二世，成功阻止波匈联军会合。合丹从东南方向经特兰西瓦尼亚入侵，击败特兰西瓦尼亚总督后向匈牙利大平原推进。拔都与速不台则从东北方向通过韦雷茨凯隘口入侵匈牙利，歼灭匈牙利宫相的军队后向王国中心进军。贝拉四世国王下令包括库曼人在内的所有军队集结于佩斯城，然而匈牙利军营中爆发骚乱，库曼族领袖惨遭屠杀，导致库曼人撤离。蒙古军在匈牙利多支分遣队抵达佩斯前将其击溃。最终，贝拉国王集结了一支2万至2.5万人的军队，不过部分史料记载匈牙利军队兵力可达6万至10万人；蒙古军至少有3万人，部分来源称入侵匈牙利的蒙古士兵人数在5万至12万之间。
As the Hungarian army, led by King Béla and his brother Duke Coloman, departed from Pest, the Mongols began to retreat to the northeast. The two armies eventually met at the river Sajó, where the Mongols defeated the Hungarians at the decisive Battle of Mohi. Nearly the entire Hungarian army was destroyed on the battlefield, while the Mongols also suffered heavy casualties. King Béla escaped from the battle thanks to a sacrifice of his brother Coloman who lured the Mongols towards Slavonia in the southwest, while Béla fled towards Pozsony (Bratislava) in the northwest. Most high dignitaries of the kingdom, including Palatine Denis Tomaj and both archbishops Ugrin Csák and Matthias Rátót died on the battlefield; Duke Coloman also died of his wounds shortly after the battle.
当贝拉国王与其弟科洛曼公爵率领匈牙利军队离开佩斯时，蒙古军开始向东北撤退。两军最终在绍约河相遇，蒙古人在决定性的莫希战役中击败匈牙利军。匈牙利军队几乎全军覆没，蒙古军也遭受了惨重伤亡。贝拉国王得以逃脱，归功于其弟科洛曼的牺牲——科洛曼将蒙古军引向西南方向的斯拉沃尼亚，而贝拉则向西北方向的普雷斯堡（今布拉迪斯拉发）逃亡。王国多数高级官员，包括宫相丹尼斯·托马伊、乌格林·恰克大主教与马蒂亚斯·拉托特大主教均战死沙场，科洛曼公爵也在战后不久因伤去世。
After the Mongols defeated the Hungarian royal army, they proceeded to devastate Hungary, exterminating one-quarter of the country’s population, with the population of the Great Hungarian plain (an area of 100,000 sq km) almost entirely wiped out. The Hungarian capital Esztergom was destroyed in a vicious battle, the town would never regain its leading role. Transylvania also lay in ruins, the account of the eyewitness Rogerius of Apulia recounts the depopulated Maros (Mureș) valley, and the destroyed, deserted town of Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia. The surviving population of Hungary took refugee in the forests, marshes, and mountains. As harvest time approached, the Mongols managed to lure a part of them out by issuing false reports in the name of King Béla. They forced the returning population to do the agricultural work for them.
蒙古人击败匈牙利王室军队后，随即对匈牙利展开蹂躏，导致该国四分之一人口丧生，面积达10万平方公里的匈牙利大平原人口几乎灭绝。匈牙利首都埃斯泰尔戈姆在一场惨烈战役中被毁，此后再也未能恢复其主导地位。特兰西瓦尼亚也沦为一片废墟，目击者阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯记载，穆列什河谷变得荒无人烟，久拉费海尔瓦里（今阿尔巴尤利亚）镇被摧毁并遭遗弃。匈牙利幸存者逃入森林、沼泽和山区，收获季节来临时，蒙古人以贝拉国王的名义散布虚假消息，诱使部分幸存者走出避难所，并强迫他们为自己从事农业劳作。
It was harvest time, they brought in the grain, hay, and straw, and put them in the barn. The Tartars [Mongol] stood by us and were amused that the father would redeem his life at the price of his beautiful daughter. They found a special pleasure in making love with the women in the presence of the father or husband. They rewarded those who brought them nice girls
(Carmen miserabile super destructione regni Hungariae per Tartaros, Rogerius of Apulia)
“正值收获时节，我们收割谷物、干草与麦秸并存入谷仓。鞑靼人（蒙古人）在一旁围观，对父亲愿以美貌女儿为代价赎回性命的行为嗤之以鼻。他们尤其乐于在女子的父亲或丈夫面前与其交合，并奖赏那些为他们带来漂亮女孩的人。”
（《鞑靼人摧毁匈牙利王国哀歌》，阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯著）
In the winter of 1241, the Mongols crossed the frozen Danube and laid waste to western Hungary, reaching the Adriatic coast in Croatia, and the Austrian border. However, unable to catch King Béla IV, who resided in Trogir, Croatia, the Mongols left Hungary in 1242, taking a great number of captives with them. The 1241–1242 Mongol invasion marked a significant turning point in Hungarian history. The Kingdom of Hungary had to be rebuilt and reorganized, and the era of the Árpád dynasty, that ruled Hungary since c. 900 AD, soon came to an end. King Béla IV is still called “second founder of the country”, to indicate the scale of destruction the Mongol invasion caused.
1241年冬天，蒙古军渡过结冰的多瑙河，蹂躏了匈牙利西部，直抵克罗地亚的亚得里亚海岸与奥地利边境。但由于未能捕获躲在克罗地亚特罗吉尔的贝拉四世国王，蒙古人于1242年撤离匈牙利，带走了大量俘虏。1241至1242年的蒙古入侵成为匈牙利历史的重要转折点，匈牙利王国不得不进行重建与重组，自公元900年左右开始统治匈牙利的阿尔帕德王朝也很快走向终结。贝拉四世国王至今仍被称为“国家第二缔造者”，这一称号彰显了蒙古入侵造成的破坏规模。
Battle of Muhi memorial in eastern Hungary
匈牙利东部的莫希战役纪念碑
Josip Almasi
约瑟普·阿尔马西
To defeat and to conquer are two very different things. Mongols have defeated Hungarian armies, but have never actually conquered Hungary.
击败与征服是截然不同的两回事。蒙古人击败了匈牙利军队，却从未真正征服匈牙利。
The king fled, first to Austria, where he was imprisoned and ransomed, then to Croatia, followed by 10,000 angry Mongols.
They tried but failed to storm Klis fortress, only to learn that the king is on some island.
国王一路逃亡，先逃至奥地利并被囚禁后赎回，随后前往克罗地亚，一万名愤怒的蒙古军紧随其后。
他们试图猛攻克利斯要塞却以失败告终，之后才得知国王躲在某座岛上。
Klis fortress, near Split, Croatia - wikipedia
But look at that picture, how does cavalry attack that? Not to mention the island.
克利斯要塞，位于克罗地亚斯普利特附近——维基百科
但看看那张图片，骑兵该如何进攻这样的要塞？更不用说进攻岛屿了。
And there were many of fortresses all around the kingdom that they could barely approach. Two years after the defeat, some 80 fortresses still stood unconquered.
To actually conquer the country, they had to get the king, and then either make him submit, or kill the entire dynasty and install the loyal one, as they did in China, and elsewhere.
而且王国境内还有许多蒙古人几乎无法接近的要塞，战败两年后，仍有约80座要塞未被攻克。
要真正征服一个国家，他们必须擒获国王，要么迫使他臣服，要么消灭整个王朝并扶植忠于自己的政权，就像他们在中国及其他地区所做的那样。
As for why they left, sources are not in agreement. One version says because Great Khan died, the other says they didn’t even know about his death, but had to put down Cuman rebellion.
What sources do not care to mention, but is sure to have happened, is high attrition.
关于他们撤离的原因，史料记载不一。一种说法是大汗去世，另一种说法是他们甚至不知道大汗已死，而是必须回去镇压库曼人的叛乱。
史料不愿提及但肯定发生过的是，蒙古军遭受了极高的损耗。
They came with five armies, that’s roughly 50,000 men with up to 200,000 horses. They had almost no means to replenish their losses. They were free to roam the country without facing any opposition, but their armies were bogged down in endless sieges. And then, cold wet winter turned Hungarian plains into swamps, and they even lost pastures for their horses.
他们出动了五支军队，约5万人及多达20万匹马，几乎没有补充损失的途径。虽然他们可以在匈牙利境内自由驰骋而未遇抵抗，但军队却陷入了无休止的围城战。此外，寒冷潮湿的冬天将匈牙利平原变成了沼泽，他们甚至失去了马匹的牧场。
Once the invasion turned into war of attrition, it failed.
For the rest of his reign, the king had another 100 stone castles made, and Second Mongol invasion of Hungary ended in only two months.
一旦入侵变成消耗战，蒙古军便已失败。
在贝拉国王的剩余统治时期，他又下令建造了100座石制城堡，而第二次蒙古入侵匈牙利仅持续了两个月便以失败告终。
Aldarion Telcontar amateur historian with some formal education
阿尔达里翁·泰尔孔塔尔 受过一定正规教育的业余历史学家
Because, matter of the fact is, Mongols were unable to conquer even Hungary alone, let alone the rest of Europe.
事实上，蒙古人甚至无法单独征服匈牙利，更不用说欧洲其他地区了。
Mongols had won the Battle of Mohi in 1241, true. But they had suffered heavy casualties in doing so, and even more importantly, Hungarian resistance continued even after the defeat. King Bela IV had fled; and while fortifications in mainland Hungary were weak, they kept resisting to the last man. Mongols, even though victorious in most engagements, were piling on casualties - and unlike European perception of the time, they were not an innumerable horde. Even a victorious campaign was wearing them out.
蒙古人确实在1241年赢得了莫希战役，但也为此付出了惨重伤亡，更重要的是，匈牙利的抵抗在战败后仍在继续。贝拉四世国王已出逃，尽管匈牙利本土的防御工事薄弱，但守军仍坚持抵抗至最后一人。蒙古人虽然在大多数战斗中获胜，却不断累积伤亡——与当时欧洲人的认知不同，他们并非人数无穷的部落联盟，即便是胜利的战役也在不断消耗他们的实力。
And there were many failures as well. Many fortifications did manage to resist the Mongols.
此外，蒙古人还遭遇了诸多失败，许多防御工事成功抵御了他们的进攻。
This was why Mongols placed such a premium on capturing the enemy leader - had they done so, they could have forced Bela IV to order his commanders to surrender. But Bela IV had fled, and so Hungary kept resisting. Few in number and weak though they were, Hungary’s castles made Mongol stay in Hungary extremely uncomfortable. They were haemorrhaging men and time, and the very few stone castles present in the Hungary proper proved invulnerable to Mongol native siege techniques of the time. And once they arrived to southern Croatia, basically every hill had such a castle, or a well-fortified city. Split, Klis, Trogir and Šibenik either resisted the Mongol assault or Mongols gave up attempting to attack in the first place, and a minor Mongol detachment may have been destroyed at the Battle of Grobnik Field in an ambush.
这就是蒙古人如此重视擒获敌方领袖的原因——若能成功擒获贝拉四世，他们便能迫使他下令指挥官投降。但由于贝拉四世已出逃，匈牙利的抵抗得以持续。尽管匈牙利的城堡数量稀少且防御薄弱，却让蒙古人在匈牙利的驻军处境极为艰难。他们在人员和时间上不断遭受损失，而匈牙利本土仅有的几座石制城堡，被证明是当时蒙古人本土攻城技术无法攻克的。当他们抵达克罗地亚南部后，几乎每座山丘都有这样的城堡或防御坚固的城市，斯普利特、克利斯、特罗吉尔和希贝尼克要么成功抵御了蒙古人的进攻，要么蒙古人一开始就放弃了进攻尝试，一支蒙古小分遣队甚至可能在格罗布尼克原野战役中遭伏击被歼灭。
To put it simply, Hungary had proven too far away from Mongol mainland and too well fortified to be conquered by the Mongols. And Western Europe had all of these issues, but an order of magnitude worse. Instead of few stone castles and a mass of small wooden commital forts, Western Europe was a place where each hill had its own castle and each castle had its own hill. Few Western knights present at Mohi had inflicted heavy casualties on the Mongols, and Europe had far more heavy cavalry than the still primitive Hungary did. And European crossbow was a weapon that Mongols were extremely afraid of in particular - smaller than the Chinese version, but much better able to be used in sieges. All these factors meant that the Mongols decided to put a halt on any attempt at further westward expansion after their invasions of Hungary and Poland had failed - though Hungary would be invaded again in 1285, and Poland in 1259 and 1287, all to a resounding lack of success.
简而言之，匈牙利被证明距离蒙古本土过于遥远，且防御工事坚固，难以被蒙古人征服。而西欧不仅存在所有这些问题，情况还要严重一个量级。与匈牙利仅有少量石制城堡和大量小型木制封臣堡垒不同，西欧的每座山丘都有自己的城堡，每座城堡都占据一座山丘。参与莫希战役的少数西欧骑士给蒙古人造成了沉重伤亡，而且西欧的重骑兵数量远多于尚处原始阶段的匈牙利。此外，欧洲弩是蒙古人特别惧怕的武器——它比中国弩更小，却更适合用于围城战。所有这些因素意味着，在入侵匈牙利和波兰失败后，蒙古人决定停止进一步向西扩张的任何尝试——不过匈牙利在1285年、波兰在1259年和1287年再次遭到入侵，但均以彻底失败告终。
Robert Sarracino Ph.D., Physics
罗伯特·萨拉西诺 物理学博士
Europe would have most likely suffered ‘a nasty ravage’, but there were three major problems for the Mongols in trying to move west from Hungary: the lack of suitable fodder for Mongolian horses in forested Europe, the invincibility of stone fortresses to Mongol attacks, and the power of heavily armored European knights.
欧洲很可能会遭受“一场可怕的蹂躏”，但蒙古人从匈牙利向西推进面临三大主要问题：森林密布的欧洲缺乏适合蒙古马的饲料、石制城堡对蒙古人的进攻坚不可摧，以及全副武装的欧洲骑士战斗力强劲。
After Bela IV’s devastating defeat, in 1241–42, knowing that the Mongols would some day return, he instituted a number of military and social reforms. Among them, he began building stone fortresses, and increasing the number of armored knights in the military.
1241至1242年贝拉四世遭受惨败后，深知蒙古人终有一天会卷土重来，于是推行了一系列军事和社会改革，包括开始建造石制城堡，并增加军队中装甲骑士的数量。
Some 43 years later the Mongols returned, and this time, although as before the civilian population suffered heavily in eastern and central Hungary, the Mongols suffered a devastating defeat. Not one stone castle or city fell to the Mongols. Locally organized raids and sallies from these impregnable fortresses and cities caused havoc among the Mongols, and they finally retreated, their forces decimated.
约43年后，蒙古人果然再次入侵，这一次，尽管匈牙利东部和中部的平民仍遭受了沉重苦难，但蒙古人却遭遇了毁灭性的失败。没有一座石制城堡或城市被蒙古人攻占，来自这些坚不可摧的堡垒和城市的地方组织突袭与出击，给蒙古人造成了极大破坏，他们最终撤军，兵力损失惨重。
Martin Lloyd MA in History, Liverpool Hope University (Graduated 2014)
马丁·劳埃德 利物浦霍普大学历史学硕士（2014年毕业）
How easy do you think it is to conquer an entire continent?
你认为征服整个大陆是件容易的事吗？
It’s like saying after conquering Thailand that someone could then conquer all of Asia.
The Mongols defeated the Hungarian field army, plundered everywhere that wasn’t sufficiently well fortified, and was on their way out.
There’s a video outlining 4 main theories for why the Mongols left Europe.
这就好比说征服泰国后，就能接着征服整个亚洲一样。
蒙古人击败了匈牙利的野战军，洗劫了所有防御不够坚固的地方，随后便撤军了。
有一段视频概述了蒙古人撤离欧洲的四种主要理论。
Political - death of Ogedai Khan in December 1241 meant Batu Khan & Subutai had to leave to choose the next Great Khan (I don’t believe it - Batu Khan left Europe before he knew about it, and then actively avoided going for choosing the next Great Khan).
政治因素——1241年12月窝阔台汗去世，意味着拔都汗和速不台必须撤军返回参与推选下一任大汗（我不认同这一说法——拔都汗在得知窝阔台汗去世前就已离开欧洲，且之后主动回避了大汗推选）。
Ecological/Geographical - Mongols struggled with terrain for the journey, such as insufficient grassland for their livestock (I think the Mongols have handled worse).
生态/地理因素——蒙古人在行军途中受地形困扰，例如缺乏足够的牧场喂养牲畜（我认为蒙古人曾应对过更恶劣的情况）。
Limited Goals or Gradual Conquest - The Mongol invasion force was never really intended to conquer all of Europe (this I think is the most plausible - many of the places in Europe the Mongols attacked were in positions of weakness: Poland was fragmented, the Byzantine Empire had not recovered from the 1204 Sack of Constantinople and was in a civil war with the Latin Empire until at least 1260, Hungary made military reforms after the Mongol invasions that look like they were demilitarized before - so I think the Mongols were mostly taking advantage of weaker areas, they didn’t seem to try very hard to advance into the Holy Roman Empire).
目标有限或渐进式征服——蒙古入侵军从未真正打算征服整个欧洲（我认为这一说法最可信——蒙古人在欧洲进攻的许多地区都处于弱势地位：波兰四分五裂，拜占庭帝国尚未从1204年君士坦丁堡被洗劫的创伤中恢复，且与拉丁帝国的内战至少持续至1260年，匈牙利在蒙古入侵后推行的军事改革表明其此前近乎解除了武装——因此我认为蒙古人主要是在利用弱势地区，他们似乎并未全力向神圣罗马帝国推进）。
Military Weakness - Resistance & losses from the campaign caused the Mongols to stop the campaign (I think there’s a little bit of this - nobody defeated the Mongols, but Mohi was a near thing, and Legnica seemed to have Mongol casualties, they can win every battle and still be taking losses).
My view is the Mongol goal was never “conquer all of Europe at once.”
军事弱点——战役中的抵抗与损失导致蒙古人停止进攻（我认为这一因素有一定影响——虽然无人击败蒙古人，但莫希战役胜负仅在一线之间，莱格尼察战役中蒙古人似乎也出现伤亡，即便他们赢得每一场战斗，仍会遭受损失）。
我的观点是，蒙古人的目标从未是“一次性征服整个欧洲”。
Part of the Mongol success was they planned out their invasions meticulously, they conducted campaigns of espionage, they knew where they were going and why, they knew more about their foes than their foes knew of them, they knew the language (one trick was they sent people shouting to retreat in Hungarian, so presumably at least some of them knew the language, or they had sufficiently good control over people who did).
蒙古人成功的部分原因在于他们精心策划入侵行动，开展间谍活动，明确进军方向与目的，对敌人的了解远超敌人对他们的了解，还掌握了敌方语言（其中一个战术是派人大喊匈牙利语让敌军撤退，因此推测至少有部分蒙古人懂匈牙利语，或他们能充分掌控懂该语言的人）。
So they had done their homework before their invasions, they spent years. Just because they were so well-prepared to invade the places they did, doesn’t mean they were quite so well-prepared to invade the next kingdom. I think their encounters with the Holy Roman Empire were only probing strike - testing for weakness.
因此，他们在入侵前做了多年的准备工作。但这并不意味着，他们对已入侵地区准备充分，就对下一个王国也同样准备就绪。我认为他们与神圣罗马帝国的接触只是试探性进攻——旨在测试对方的弱点。
In short, the Mongols knew the weaknesses of most of their targets before they invaded, and so keeping up a rapid pace of invasion would mean neglecting many of the things that made them so successful.
简而言之，蒙古人在入侵前就了解大多数目标的弱点，因此保持快速入侵节奏意味着会忽略许多使其成功的关键因素。
Mats Andersson Common or Garden Armchair Historian
马茨·安德森 普通业余历史学家
No.
Their method of warfare was 100% dependent on horses. They could conquer any place with large amounts of grass. At the time, Central Europe was mostly forest, and could not sustain a marauding horde on horseback. Hungary is the westernmost place in Europe with large grass plains. The large forests of present-day Germany, or the Alps and Carpathians, were completely impassable to the Mongols.
不能。
他们的作战方式完全依赖马匹，只能征服拥有大量草地的地区。当时的中欧大部分地区为森林，无法养活一支骑马劫掠的部落联盟。匈牙利是欧洲最西端拥有大片草原的地区，如今德国的广阔森林、阿尔卑斯山脉和喀尔巴阡山脉，对蒙古人来说完全无法通行。
There were additional factors that ended their conquest, such as the death of the Great Khan, but even absence of those factors would not have meant presence of grass.
还有其他因素导致他们的征服终止，例如大汗去世，但即便没有这些因素，欧洲也缺乏足够的草地供其马匹生存。
评论翻译
Mongol invasion - After the Mongols defeated Hungary in 1241, why did they leave? Couldn't they have stayed to conquer all of Europe?
蒙古入侵——1241年蒙古人击败匈牙利后为何撤军？他们本可以留下来征服整个欧洲吗？
The 1241 Mongol campaign was launched specifically against the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a punishment for the Hungarians for admitting the Cumans into their country, a Turkic people who had been decisively defeated by Mongol generals Subutai and Jebe in 1239. In 1240, Batu Khan sent an ultimatum to King Béla IV of Hungary to stop harboring the Cumans, threatening with an invasion if he wouldn’t comply. Béla refused Batu’s demands, however he wasn’t fully aware of the military power of the Mongols.
1241年的蒙古远征专门针对匈牙利王国，这是对匈牙利接纳库曼人的惩罚——库曼人是一个突厥族群，于1239年被蒙古将领速不台和哲别彻底击败。1240年，拔都汗向匈牙利国王贝拉四世发出最后通牒，要求其停止庇护库曼人，否则将发动入侵。贝拉拒绝了拔都的要求，但他并未充分了解蒙古人的军事实力。
I have been informed that you have taken the Cumans, my servants, under your patronage. Therefore I advise you not to keep them in your lands, so that I do not become your enemy because of them. It is easier for the Cumans to escape; since they wander with their tents, so maybe they could avoid me, but you live in houses, you have castles and cities, how could you escape from me?!
(Batu Khan’s letter to King Béla IV)
“朕已获悉，你将朕的属民库曼人纳入庇护之下。因此朕奉劝你不要将他们留在你的领土上，以免朕因他们而成为你的敌人。库曼人易于逃脱，他们带着帐篷四处迁徙，或许能避开朕，但你居住在房屋中，拥有城堡与城市，又怎能逃过朕的手掌？！”
（拔都汗致贝拉四世国王的信函）
In the spring of 1241, the Mongols led by Batu attacked Hungary from several directions. Orda Khan attacked from the north through Hungary’s ally Poland, defeating Polish duke Henry II at Legnica, thus preventing Polish and Hungarian forces to unite. Kadan invaded from the southeast through Transylvania, defeating the Transylvanian voivode, and advancing towards the Great Hungarian plain. Batu and Subutai invaded Hungary from the northeast through the Verecke Pass, annihilating the army of the Hungarian Palatine and marching towards the centre of the kingdom. King Béla IV ordered all his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of Pest. In the Hungarian camp, a riot broke out, in which Cuman leaders were massacred, causing the departure of the Cumans. The Mongols destroyed several Hungarian contingents before those could have reached Pest. Finally, King Béla could gather an army of 20,000 - 25,000 men, although some sources put the strength of the Hungarian army at 60,000 - 100,000. The Mongol army numbered at least 30,000 men, some sources give the number of Mongol soldiers invading Hungary in the range 50,000 - 120,000.
1241年春天，拔都率领的蒙古军从多个方向进攻匈牙利。斡儿答汗从北方穿过匈牙利的盟友波兰，在莱格尼察击败波兰公爵亨利二世，成功阻止波匈联军会合。合丹从东南方向经特兰西瓦尼亚入侵，击败特兰西瓦尼亚总督后向匈牙利大平原推进。拔都与速不台则从东北方向通过韦雷茨凯隘口入侵匈牙利，歼灭匈牙利宫相的军队后向王国中心进军。贝拉四世国王下令包括库曼人在内的所有军队集结于佩斯城，然而匈牙利军营中爆发骚乱，库曼族领袖惨遭屠杀，导致库曼人撤离。蒙古军在匈牙利多支分遣队抵达佩斯前将其击溃。最终，贝拉国王集结了一支2万至2.5万人的军队，不过部分史料记载匈牙利军队兵力可达6万至10万人；蒙古军至少有3万人，部分来源称入侵匈牙利的蒙古士兵人数在5万至12万之间。
As the Hungarian army, led by King Béla and his brother Duke Coloman, departed from Pest, the Mongols began to retreat to the northeast. The two armies eventually met at the river Sajó, where the Mongols defeated the Hungarians at the decisive Battle of Mohi. Nearly the entire Hungarian army was destroyed on the battlefield, while the Mongols also suffered heavy casualties. King Béla escaped from the battle thanks to a sacrifice of his brother Coloman who lured the Mongols towards Slavonia in the southwest, while Béla fled towards Pozsony (Bratislava) in the northwest. Most high dignitaries of the kingdom, including Palatine Denis Tomaj and both archbishops Ugrin Csák and Matthias Rátót died on the battlefield; Duke Coloman also died of his wounds shortly after the battle.
当贝拉国王与其弟科洛曼公爵率领匈牙利军队离开佩斯时，蒙古军开始向东北撤退。两军最终在绍约河相遇，蒙古人在决定性的莫希战役中击败匈牙利军。匈牙利军队几乎全军覆没，蒙古军也遭受了惨重伤亡。贝拉国王得以逃脱，归功于其弟科洛曼的牺牲——科洛曼将蒙古军引向西南方向的斯拉沃尼亚，而贝拉则向西北方向的普雷斯堡（今布拉迪斯拉发）逃亡。王国多数高级官员，包括宫相丹尼斯·托马伊、乌格林·恰克大主教与马蒂亚斯·拉托特大主教均战死沙场，科洛曼公爵也在战后不久因伤去世。
After the Mongols defeated the Hungarian royal army, they proceeded to devastate Hungary, exterminating one-quarter of the country’s population, with the population of the Great Hungarian plain (an area of 100,000 sq km) almost entirely wiped out. The Hungarian capital Esztergom was destroyed in a vicious battle, the town would never regain its leading role. Transylvania also lay in ruins, the account of the eyewitness Rogerius of Apulia recounts the depopulated Maros (Mureș) valley, and the destroyed, deserted town of Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia. The surviving population of Hungary took refugee in the forests, marshes, and mountains. As harvest time approached, the Mongols managed to lure a part of them out by issuing false reports in the name of King Béla. They forced the returning population to do the agricultural work for them.
蒙古人击败匈牙利王室军队后，随即对匈牙利展开蹂躏，导致该国四分之一人口丧生，面积达10万平方公里的匈牙利大平原人口几乎灭绝。匈牙利首都埃斯泰尔戈姆在一场惨烈战役中被毁，此后再也未能恢复其主导地位。特兰西瓦尼亚也沦为一片废墟，目击者阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯记载，穆列什河谷变得荒无人烟，久拉费海尔瓦里（今阿尔巴尤利亚）镇被摧毁并遭遗弃。匈牙利幸存者逃入森林、沼泽和山区，收获季节来临时，蒙古人以贝拉国王的名义散布虚假消息，诱使部分幸存者走出避难所，并强迫他们为自己从事农业劳作。
It was harvest time, they brought in the grain, hay, and straw, and put them in the barn. The Tartars [Mongol] stood by us and were amused that the father would redeem his life at the price of his beautiful daughter. They found a special pleasure in making love with the women in the presence of the father or husband. They rewarded those who brought them nice girls
(Carmen miserabile super destructione regni Hungariae per Tartaros, Rogerius of Apulia)
“正值收获时节，我们收割谷物、干草与麦秸并存入谷仓。鞑靼人（蒙古人）在一旁围观，对父亲愿以美貌女儿为代价赎回性命的行为嗤之以鼻。他们尤其乐于在女子的父亲或丈夫面前与其交合，并奖赏那些为他们带来漂亮女孩的人。”
（《鞑靼人摧毁匈牙利王国哀歌》，阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯著）
In the winter of 1241, the Mongols crossed the frozen Danube and laid waste to western Hungary, reaching the Adriatic coast in Croatia, and the Austrian border. However, unable to catch King Béla IV, who resided in Trogir, Croatia, the Mongols left Hungary in 1242, taking a great number of captives with them. The 1241–1242 Mongol invasion marked a significant turning point in Hungarian history. The Kingdom of Hungary had to be rebuilt and reorganized, and the era of the Árpád dynasty, that ruled Hungary since c. 900 AD, soon came to an end. King Béla IV is still called “second founder of the country”, to indicate the scale of destruction the Mongol invasion caused.
1241年冬天，蒙古军渡过结冰的多瑙河，蹂躏了匈牙利西部，直抵克罗地亚的亚得里亚海岸与奥地利边境。但由于未能捕获躲在克罗地亚特罗吉尔的贝拉四世国王，蒙古人于1242年撤离匈牙利，带走了大量俘虏。1241至1242年的蒙古入侵成为匈牙利历史的重要转折点，匈牙利王国不得不进行重建与重组，自公元900年左右开始统治匈牙利的阿尔帕德王朝也很快走向终结。贝拉四世国王至今仍被称为“国家第二缔造者”，这一称号彰显了蒙古入侵造成的破坏规模。
Battle of Muhi memorial in eastern Hungary
匈牙利东部的莫希战役纪念碑
Josip Almasi
约瑟普·阿尔马西
To defeat and to conquer are two very different things. Mongols have defeated Hungarian armies, but have never actually conquered Hungary.
击败与征服是截然不同的两回事。蒙古人击败了匈牙利军队，却从未真正征服匈牙利。
The king fled, first to Austria, where he was imprisoned and ransomed, then to Croatia, followed by 10,000 angry Mongols.
They tried but failed to storm Klis fortress, only to learn that the king is on some island.
国王一路逃亡，先逃至奥地利并被囚禁后赎回，随后前往克罗地亚，一万名愤怒的蒙古军紧随其后。
他们试图猛攻克利斯要塞却以失败告终，之后才得知国王躲在某座岛上。
Klis fortress, near Split, Croatia - wikipedia
But look at that picture, how does cavalry attack that? Not to mention the island.
克利斯要塞，位于克罗地亚斯普利特附近——维基百科
但看看那张图片，骑兵该如何进攻这样的要塞？更不用说进攻岛屿了。
And there were many of fortresses all around the kingdom that they could barely approach. Two years after the defeat, some 80 fortresses still stood unconquered.
To actually conquer the country, they had to get the king, and then either make him submit, or kill the entire dynasty and install the loyal one, as they did in China, and elsewhere.
而且王国境内还有许多蒙古人几乎无法接近的要塞，战败两年后，仍有约80座要塞未被攻克。
要真正征服一个国家，他们必须擒获国王，要么迫使他臣服，要么消灭整个王朝并扶植忠于自己的政权，就像他们在中国及其他地区所做的那样。
As for why they left, sources are not in agreement. One version says because Great Khan died, the other says they didn’t even know about his death, but had to put down Cuman rebellion.
What sources do not care to mention, but is sure to have happened, is high attrition.
关于他们撤离的原因，史料记载不一。一种说法是大汗去世，另一种说法是他们甚至不知道大汗已死，而是必须回去镇压库曼人的叛乱。
史料不愿提及但肯定发生过的是，蒙古军遭受了极高的损耗。
They came with five armies, that’s roughly 50,000 men with up to 200,000 horses. They had almost no means to replenish their losses. They were free to roam the country without facing any opposition, but their armies were bogged down in endless sieges. And then, cold wet winter turned Hungarian plains into swamps, and they even lost pastures for their horses.
他们出动了五支军队，约5万人及多达20万匹马，几乎没有补充损失的途径。虽然他们可以在匈牙利境内自由驰骋而未遇抵抗，但军队却陷入了无休止的围城战。此外，寒冷潮湿的冬天将匈牙利平原变成了沼泽，他们甚至失去了马匹的牧场。
Once the invasion turned into war of attrition, it failed.
For the rest of his reign, the king had another 100 stone castles made, and Second Mongol invasion of Hungary ended in only two months.
一旦入侵变成消耗战，蒙古军便已失败。
在贝拉国王的剩余统治时期，他又下令建造了100座石制城堡，而第二次蒙古入侵匈牙利仅持续了两个月便以失败告终。
Aldarion Telcontar amateur historian with some formal education
阿尔达里翁·泰尔孔塔尔 受过一定正规教育的业余历史学家
Because, matter of the fact is, Mongols were unable to conquer even Hungary alone, let alone the rest of Europe.
事实上，蒙古人甚至无法单独征服匈牙利，更不用说欧洲其他地区了。
Mongols had won the Battle of Mohi in 1241, true. But they had suffered heavy casualties in doing so, and even more importantly, Hungarian resistance continued even after the defeat. King Bela IV had fled; and while fortifications in mainland Hungary were weak, they kept resisting to the last man. Mongols, even though victorious in most engagements, were piling on casualties - and unlike European perception of the time, they were not an innumerable horde. Even a victorious campaign was wearing them out.
蒙古人确实在1241年赢得了莫希战役，但也为此付出了惨重伤亡，更重要的是，匈牙利的抵抗在战败后仍在继续。贝拉四世国王已出逃，尽管匈牙利本土的防御工事薄弱，但守军仍坚持抵抗至最后一人。蒙古人虽然在大多数战斗中获胜，却不断累积伤亡——与当时欧洲人的认知不同，他们并非人数无穷的部落联盟，即便是胜利的战役也在不断消耗他们的实力。
And there were many failures as well. Many fortifications did manage to resist the Mongols.
此外，蒙古人还遭遇了诸多失败，许多防御工事成功抵御了他们的进攻。
This was why Mongols placed such a premium on capturing the enemy leader - had they done so, they could have forced Bela IV to order his commanders to surrender. But Bela IV had fled, and so Hungary kept resisting. Few in number and weak though they were, Hungary’s castles made Mongol stay in Hungary extremely uncomfortable. They were haemorrhaging men and time, and the very few stone castles present in the Hungary proper proved invulnerable to Mongol native siege techniques of the time. And once they arrived to southern Croatia, basically every hill had such a castle, or a well-fortified city. Split, Klis, Trogir and Šibenik either resisted the Mongol assault or Mongols gave up attempting to attack in the first place, and a minor Mongol detachment may have been destroyed at the Battle of Grobnik Field in an ambush.
这就是蒙古人如此重视擒获敌方领袖的原因——若能成功擒获贝拉四世，他们便能迫使他下令指挥官投降。但由于贝拉四世已出逃，匈牙利的抵抗得以持续。尽管匈牙利的城堡数量稀少且防御薄弱，却让蒙古人在匈牙利的驻军处境极为艰难。他们在人员和时间上不断遭受损失，而匈牙利本土仅有的几座石制城堡，被证明是当时蒙古人本土攻城技术无法攻克的。当他们抵达克罗地亚南部后，几乎每座山丘都有这样的城堡或防御坚固的城市，斯普利特、克利斯、特罗吉尔和希贝尼克要么成功抵御了蒙古人的进攻，要么蒙古人一开始就放弃了进攻尝试，一支蒙古小分遣队甚至可能在格罗布尼克原野战役中遭伏击被歼灭。
To put it simply, Hungary had proven too far away from Mongol mainland and too well fortified to be conquered by the Mongols. And Western Europe had all of these issues, but an order of magnitude worse. Instead of few stone castles and a mass of small wooden commital forts, Western Europe was a place where each hill had its own castle and each castle had its own hill. Few Western knights present at Mohi had inflicted heavy casualties on the Mongols, and Europe had far more heavy cavalry than the still primitive Hungary did. And European crossbow was a weapon that Mongols were extremely afraid of in particular - smaller than the Chinese version, but much better able to be used in sieges. All these factors meant that the Mongols decided to put a halt on any attempt at further westward expansion after their invasions of Hungary and Poland had failed - though Hungary would be invaded again in 1285, and Poland in 1259 and 1287, all to a resounding lack of success.
简而言之，匈牙利被证明距离蒙古本土过于遥远，且防御工事坚固，难以被蒙古人征服。而西欧不仅存在所有这些问题，情况还要严重一个量级。与匈牙利仅有少量石制城堡和大量小型木制封臣堡垒不同，西欧的每座山丘都有自己的城堡，每座城堡都占据一座山丘。参与莫希战役的少数西欧骑士给蒙古人造成了沉重伤亡，而且西欧的重骑兵数量远多于尚处原始阶段的匈牙利。此外，欧洲弩是蒙古人特别惧怕的武器——它比中国弩更小，却更适合用于围城战。所有这些因素意味着，在入侵匈牙利和波兰失败后，蒙古人决定停止进一步向西扩张的任何尝试——不过匈牙利在1285年、波兰在1259年和1287年再次遭到入侵，但均以彻底失败告终。
Robert Sarracino Ph.D., Physics
罗伯特·萨拉西诺 物理学博士
Europe would have most likely suffered ‘a nasty ravage’, but there were three major problems for the Mongols in trying to move west from Hungary: the lack of suitable fodder for Mongolian horses in forested Europe, the invincibility of stone fortresses to Mongol attacks, and the power of heavily armored European knights.
欧洲很可能会遭受“一场可怕的蹂躏”，但蒙古人从匈牙利向西推进面临三大主要问题：森林密布的欧洲缺乏适合蒙古马的饲料、石制城堡对蒙古人的进攻坚不可摧，以及全副武装的欧洲骑士战斗力强劲。
After Bela IV’s devastating defeat, in 1241–42, knowing that the Mongols would some day return, he instituted a number of military and social reforms. Among them, he began building stone fortresses, and increasing the number of armored knights in the military.
1241至1242年贝拉四世遭受惨败后，深知蒙古人终有一天会卷土重来，于是推行了一系列军事和社会改革，包括开始建造石制城堡，并增加军队中装甲骑士的数量。
Some 43 years later the Mongols returned, and this time, although as before the civilian population suffered heavily in eastern and central Hungary, the Mongols suffered a devastating defeat. Not one stone castle or city fell to the Mongols. Locally organized raids and sallies from these impregnable fortresses and cities caused havoc among the Mongols, and they finally retreated, their forces decimated.
约43年后，蒙古人果然再次入侵，这一次，尽管匈牙利东部和中部的平民仍遭受了沉重苦难，但蒙古人却遭遇了毁灭性的失败。没有一座石制城堡或城市被蒙古人攻占，来自这些坚不可摧的堡垒和城市的地方组织突袭与出击，给蒙古人造成了极大破坏，他们最终撤军，兵力损失惨重。
Martin Lloyd MA in History, Liverpool Hope University (Graduated 2014)
马丁·劳埃德 利物浦霍普大学历史学硕士（2014年毕业）
How easy do you think it is to conquer an entire continent?
你认为征服整个大陆是件容易的事吗？
It’s like saying after conquering Thailand that someone could then conquer all of Asia.
The Mongols defeated the Hungarian field army, plundered everywhere that wasn’t sufficiently well fortified, and was on their way out.
There’s a video outlining 4 main theories for why the Mongols left Europe.
这就好比说征服泰国后，就能接着征服整个亚洲一样。
蒙古人击败了匈牙利的野战军，洗劫了所有防御不够坚固的地方，随后便撤军了。
有一段视频概述了蒙古人撤离欧洲的四种主要理论。
Political - death of Ogedai Khan in December 1241 meant Batu Khan & Subutai had to leave to choose the next Great Khan (I don’t believe it - Batu Khan left Europe before he knew about it, and then actively avoided going for choosing the next Great Khan).
政治因素——1241年12月窝阔台汗去世，意味着拔都汗和速不台必须撤军返回参与推选下一任大汗（我不认同这一说法——拔都汗在得知窝阔台汗去世前就已离开欧洲，且之后主动回避了大汗推选）。
Ecological/Geographical - Mongols struggled with terrain for the journey, such as insufficient grassland for their livestock (I think the Mongols have handled worse).
生态/地理因素——蒙古人在行军途中受地形困扰，例如缺乏足够的牧场喂养牲畜（我认为蒙古人曾应对过更恶劣的情况）。
Limited Goals or Gradual Conquest - The Mongol invasion force was never really intended to conquer all of Europe (this I think is the most plausible - many of the places in Europe the Mongols attacked were in positions of weakness: Poland was fragmented, the Byzantine Empire had not recovered from the 1204 Sack of Constantinople and was in a civil war with the Latin Empire until at least 1260, Hungary made military reforms after the Mongol invasions that look like they were demilitarized before - so I think the Mongols were mostly taking advantage of weaker areas, they didn’t seem to try very hard to advance into the Holy Roman Empire).
目标有限或渐进式征服——蒙古入侵军从未真正打算征服整个欧洲（我认为这一说法最可信——蒙古人在欧洲进攻的许多地区都处于弱势地位：波兰四分五裂，拜占庭帝国尚未从1204年君士坦丁堡被洗劫的创伤中恢复，且与拉丁帝国的内战至少持续至1260年，匈牙利在蒙古入侵后推行的军事改革表明其此前近乎解除了武装——因此我认为蒙古人主要是在利用弱势地区，他们似乎并未全力向神圣罗马帝国推进）。
Military Weakness - Resistance & losses from the campaign caused the Mongols to stop the campaign (I think there’s a little bit of this - nobody defeated the Mongols, but Mohi was a near thing, and Legnica seemed to have Mongol casualties, they can win every battle and still be taking losses).
My view is the Mongol goal was never “conquer all of Europe at once.”
军事弱点——战役中的抵抗与损失导致蒙古人停止进攻（我认为这一因素有一定影响——虽然无人击败蒙古人，但莫希战役胜负仅在一线之间，莱格尼察战役中蒙古人似乎也出现伤亡，即便他们赢得每一场战斗，仍会遭受损失）。
我的观点是，蒙古人的目标从未是“一次性征服整个欧洲”。
Part of the Mongol success was they planned out their invasions meticulously, they conducted campaigns of espionage, they knew where they were going and why, they knew more about their foes than their foes knew of them, they knew the language (one trick was they sent people shouting to retreat in Hungarian, so presumably at least some of them knew the language, or they had sufficiently good control over people who did).
蒙古人成功的部分原因在于他们精心策划入侵行动，开展间谍活动，明确进军方向与目的，对敌人的了解远超敌人对他们的了解，还掌握了敌方语言（其中一个战术是派人大喊匈牙利语让敌军撤退，因此推测至少有部分蒙古人懂匈牙利语，或他们能充分掌控懂该语言的人）。
So they had done their homework before their invasions, they spent years. Just because they were so well-prepared to invade the places they did, doesn’t mean they were quite so well-prepared to invade the next kingdom. I think their encounters with the Holy Roman Empire were only probing strike - testing for weakness.
因此，他们在入侵前做了多年的准备工作。但这并不意味着，他们对已入侵地区准备充分，就对下一个王国也同样准备就绪。我认为他们与神圣罗马帝国的接触只是试探性进攻——旨在测试对方的弱点。
In short, the Mongols knew the weaknesses of most of their targets before they invaded, and so keeping up a rapid pace of invasion would mean neglecting many of the things that made them so successful.
简而言之，蒙古人在入侵前就了解大多数目标的弱点，因此保持快速入侵节奏意味着会忽略许多使其成功的关键因素。
Mats Andersson Common or Garden Armchair Historian
马茨·安德森 普通业余历史学家
No.
Their method of warfare was 100% dependent on horses. They could conquer any place with large amounts of grass. At the time, Central Europe was mostly forest, and could not sustain a marauding horde on horseback. Hungary is the westernmost place in Europe with large grass plains. The large forests of present-day Germany, or the Alps and Carpathians, were completely impassable to the Mongols.
不能。
他们的作战方式完全依赖马匹，只能征服拥有大量草地的地区。当时的中欧大部分地区为森林，无法养活一支骑马劫掠的部落联盟。匈牙利是欧洲最西端拥有大片草原的地区，如今德国的广阔森林、阿尔卑斯山脉和喀尔巴阡山脉，对蒙古人来说完全无法通行。
There were additional factors that ended their conquest, such as the death of the Great Khan, but even absence of those factors would not have meant presence of grass.
还有其他因素导致他们的征服终止，例如大汗去世，但即便没有这些因素，欧洲也缺乏足够的草地供其马匹生存。
蒙古入侵——1241年蒙古人击败匈牙利后为何撤军？他们本可以留下来征服整个欧洲吗？
The 1241 Mongol campaign was launched specifically against the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a punishment for the Hungarians for admitting the Cumans into their country, a Turkic people who had been decisively defeated by Mongol generals Subutai and Jebe in 1239. In 1240, Batu Khan sent an ultimatum to King Béla IV of Hungary to stop harboring the Cumans, threatening with an invasion if he wouldn’t comply. Béla refused Batu’s demands, however he wasn’t fully aware of the military power of the Mongols.
1241年的蒙古远征专门针对匈牙利王国，这是对匈牙利接纳库曼人的惩罚——库曼人是一个突厥族群，于1239年被蒙古将领速不台和哲别彻底击败。1240年，拔都汗向匈牙利国王贝拉四世发出最后通牒，要求其停止庇护库曼人，否则将发动入侵。贝拉拒绝了拔都的要求，但他并未充分了解蒙古人的军事实力。
I have been informed that you have taken the Cumans, my servants, under your patronage. Therefore I advise you not to keep them in your lands, so that I do not become your enemy because of them. It is easier for the Cumans to escape; since they wander with their tents, so maybe they could avoid me, but you live in houses, you have castles and cities, how could you escape from me?!
(Batu Khan’s letter to King Béla IV)
“朕已获悉，你将朕的属民库曼人纳入庇护之下。因此朕奉劝你不要将他们留在你的领土上，以免朕因他们而成为你的敌人。库曼人易于逃脱，他们带着帐篷四处迁徙，或许能避开朕，但你居住在房屋中，拥有城堡与城市，又怎能逃过朕的手掌？！”
（拔都汗致贝拉四世国王的信函）
In the spring of 1241, the Mongols led by Batu attacked Hungary from several directions. Orda Khan attacked from the north through Hungary’s ally Poland, defeating Polish duke Henry II at Legnica, thus preventing Polish and Hungarian forces to unite. Kadan invaded from the southeast through Transylvania, defeating the Transylvanian voivode, and advancing towards the Great Hungarian plain. Batu and Subutai invaded Hungary from the northeast through the Verecke Pass, annihilating the army of the Hungarian Palatine and marching towards the centre of the kingdom. King Béla IV ordered all his troops, including the Cumans, to the city of Pest. In the Hungarian camp, a riot broke out, in which Cuman leaders were massacred, causing the departure of the Cumans. The Mongols destroyed several Hungarian contingents before those could have reached Pest. Finally, King Béla could gather an army of 20,000 - 25,000 men, although some sources put the strength of the Hungarian army at 60,000 - 100,000. The Mongol army numbered at least 30,000 men, some sources give the number of Mongol soldiers invading Hungary in the range 50,000 - 120,000.
1241年春天，拔都率领的蒙古军从多个方向进攻匈牙利。斡儿答汗从北方穿过匈牙利的盟友波兰，在莱格尼察击败波兰公爵亨利二世，成功阻止波匈联军会合。合丹从东南方向经特兰西瓦尼亚入侵，击败特兰西瓦尼亚总督后向匈牙利大平原推进。拔都与速不台则从东北方向通过韦雷茨凯隘口入侵匈牙利，歼灭匈牙利宫相的军队后向王国中心进军。贝拉四世国王下令包括库曼人在内的所有军队集结于佩斯城，然而匈牙利军营中爆发骚乱，库曼族领袖惨遭屠杀，导致库曼人撤离。蒙古军在匈牙利多支分遣队抵达佩斯前将其击溃。最终，贝拉国王集结了一支2万至2.5万人的军队，不过部分史料记载匈牙利军队兵力可达6万至10万人；蒙古军至少有3万人，部分来源称入侵匈牙利的蒙古士兵人数在5万至12万之间。
As the Hungarian army, led by King Béla and his brother Duke Coloman, departed from Pest, the Mongols began to retreat to the northeast. The two armies eventually met at the river Sajó, where the Mongols defeated the Hungarians at the decisive Battle of Mohi. Nearly the entire Hungarian army was destroyed on the battlefield, while the Mongols also suffered heavy casualties. King Béla escaped from the battle thanks to a sacrifice of his brother Coloman who lured the Mongols towards Slavonia in the southwest, while Béla fled towards Pozsony (Bratislava) in the northwest. Most high dignitaries of the kingdom, including Palatine Denis Tomaj and both archbishops Ugrin Csák and Matthias Rátót died on the battlefield; Duke Coloman also died of his wounds shortly after the battle.
当贝拉国王与其弟科洛曼公爵率领匈牙利军队离开佩斯时，蒙古军开始向东北撤退。两军最终在绍约河相遇，蒙古人在决定性的莫希战役中击败匈牙利军。匈牙利军队几乎全军覆没，蒙古军也遭受了惨重伤亡。贝拉国王得以逃脱，归功于其弟科洛曼的牺牲——科洛曼将蒙古军引向西南方向的斯拉沃尼亚，而贝拉则向西北方向的普雷斯堡（今布拉迪斯拉发）逃亡。王国多数高级官员，包括宫相丹尼斯·托马伊、乌格林·恰克大主教与马蒂亚斯·拉托特大主教均战死沙场，科洛曼公爵也在战后不久因伤去世。
After the Mongols defeated the Hungarian royal army, they proceeded to devastate Hungary, exterminating one-quarter of the country’s population, with the population of the Great Hungarian plain (an area of 100,000 sq km) almost entirely wiped out. The Hungarian capital Esztergom was destroyed in a vicious battle, the town would never regain its leading role. Transylvania also lay in ruins, the account of the eyewitness Rogerius of Apulia recounts the depopulated Maros (Mureș) valley, and the destroyed, deserted town of Gyulafehérvár / Alba Iulia. The surviving population of Hungary took refugee in the forests, marshes, and mountains. As harvest time approached, the Mongols managed to lure a part of them out by issuing false reports in the name of King Béla. They forced the returning population to do the agricultural work for them.
蒙古人击败匈牙利王室军队后，随即对匈牙利展开蹂躏，导致该国四分之一人口丧生，面积达10万平方公里的匈牙利大平原人口几乎灭绝。匈牙利首都埃斯泰尔戈姆在一场惨烈战役中被毁，此后再也未能恢复其主导地位。特兰西瓦尼亚也沦为一片废墟，目击者阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯记载，穆列什河谷变得荒无人烟，久拉费海尔瓦里（今阿尔巴尤利亚）镇被摧毁并遭遗弃。匈牙利幸存者逃入森林、沼泽和山区，收获季节来临时，蒙古人以贝拉国王的名义散布虚假消息，诱使部分幸存者走出避难所，并强迫他们为自己从事农业劳作。
It was harvest time, they brought in the grain, hay, and straw, and put them in the barn. The Tartars [Mongol] stood by us and were amused that the father would redeem his life at the price of his beautiful daughter. They found a special pleasure in making love with the women in the presence of the father or husband. They rewarded those who brought them nice girls
(Carmen miserabile super destructione regni Hungariae per Tartaros, Rogerius of Apulia)
“正值收获时节，我们收割谷物、干草与麦秸并存入谷仓。鞑靼人（蒙古人）在一旁围观，对父亲愿以美貌女儿为代价赎回性命的行为嗤之以鼻。他们尤其乐于在女子的父亲或丈夫面前与其交合，并奖赏那些为他们带来漂亮女孩的人。”
（《鞑靼人摧毁匈牙利王国哀歌》，阿普利亚的罗格里乌斯著）
In the winter of 1241, the Mongols crossed the frozen Danube and laid waste to western Hungary, reaching the Adriatic coast in Croatia, and the Austrian border. However, unable to catch King Béla IV, who resided in Trogir, Croatia, the Mongols left Hungary in 1242, taking a great number of captives with them. The 1241–1242 Mongol invasion marked a significant turning point in Hungarian history. The Kingdom of Hungary had to be rebuilt and reorganized, and the era of the Árpád dynasty, that ruled Hungary since c. 900 AD, soon came to an end. King Béla IV is still called “second founder of the country”, to indicate the scale of destruction the Mongol invasion caused.
1241年冬天，蒙古军渡过结冰的多瑙河，蹂躏了匈牙利西部，直抵克罗地亚的亚得里亚海岸与奥地利边境。但由于未能捕获躲在克罗地亚特罗吉尔的贝拉四世国王，蒙古人于1242年撤离匈牙利，带走了大量俘虏。1241至1242年的蒙古入侵成为匈牙利历史的重要转折点，匈牙利王国不得不进行重建与重组，自公元900年左右开始统治匈牙利的阿尔帕德王朝也很快走向终结。贝拉四世国王至今仍被称为“国家第二缔造者”，这一称号彰显了蒙古入侵造成的破坏规模。
Battle of Muhi memorial in eastern Hungary
匈牙利东部的莫希战役纪念碑
Josip Almasi
约瑟普·阿尔马西
To defeat and to conquer are two very different things. Mongols have defeated Hungarian armies, but have never actually conquered Hungary.
击败与征服是截然不同的两回事。蒙古人击败了匈牙利军队，却从未真正征服匈牙利。
The king fled, first to Austria, where he was imprisoned and ransomed, then to Croatia, followed by 10,000 angry Mongols.
They tried but failed to storm Klis fortress, only to learn that the king is on some island.
国王一路逃亡，先逃至奥地利并被囚禁后赎回，随后前往克罗地亚，一万名愤怒的蒙古军紧随其后。
他们试图猛攻克利斯要塞却以失败告终，之后才得知国王躲在某座岛上。
Klis fortress, near Split, Croatia - wikipedia
But look at that picture, how does cavalry attack that? Not to mention the island.
克利斯要塞，位于克罗地亚斯普利特附近——维基百科
但看看那张图片，骑兵该如何进攻这样的要塞？更不用说进攻岛屿了。
And there were many of fortresses all around the kingdom that they could barely approach. Two years after the defeat, some 80 fortresses still stood unconquered.
To actually conquer the country, they had to get the king, and then either make him submit, or kill the entire dynasty and install the loyal one, as they did in China, and elsewhere.
而且王国境内还有许多蒙古人几乎无法接近的要塞，战败两年后，仍有约80座要塞未被攻克。
要真正征服一个国家，他们必须擒获国王，要么迫使他臣服，要么消灭整个王朝并扶植忠于自己的政权，就像他们在中国及其他地区所做的那样。
As for why they left, sources are not in agreement. One version says because Great Khan died, the other says they didn’t even know about his death, but had to put down Cuman rebellion.
What sources do not care to mention, but is sure to have happened, is high attrition.
关于他们撤离的原因，史料记载不一。一种说法是大汗去世，另一种说法是他们甚至不知道大汗已死，而是必须回去镇压库曼人的叛乱。
史料不愿提及但肯定发生过的是，蒙古军遭受了极高的损耗。
They came with five armies, that’s roughly 50,000 men with up to 200,000 horses. They had almost no means to replenish their losses. They were free to roam the country without facing any opposition, but their armies were bogged down in endless sieges. And then, cold wet winter turned Hungarian plains into swamps, and they even lost pastures for their horses.
他们出动了五支军队，约5万人及多达20万匹马，几乎没有补充损失的途径。虽然他们可以在匈牙利境内自由驰骋而未遇抵抗，但军队却陷入了无休止的围城战。此外，寒冷潮湿的冬天将匈牙利平原变成了沼泽，他们甚至失去了马匹的牧场。
Once the invasion turned into war of attrition, it failed.
For the rest of his reign, the king had another 100 stone castles made, and Second Mongol invasion of Hungary ended in only two months.
一旦入侵变成消耗战，蒙古军便已失败。
在贝拉国王的剩余统治时期，他又下令建造了100座石制城堡，而第二次蒙古入侵匈牙利仅持续了两个月便以失败告终。
Aldarion Telcontar amateur historian with some formal education
阿尔达里翁·泰尔孔塔尔 受过一定正规教育的业余历史学家
Because, matter of the fact is, Mongols were unable to conquer even Hungary alone, let alone the rest of Europe.
事实上，蒙古人甚至无法单独征服匈牙利，更不用说欧洲其他地区了。
Mongols had won the Battle of Mohi in 1241, true. But they had suffered heavy casualties in doing so, and even more importantly, Hungarian resistance continued even after the defeat. King Bela IV had fled; and while fortifications in mainland Hungary were weak, they kept resisting to the last man. Mongols, even though victorious in most engagements, were piling on casualties - and unlike European perception of the time, they were not an innumerable horde. Even a victorious campaign was wearing them out.
蒙古人确实在1241年赢得了莫希战役，但也为此付出了惨重伤亡，更重要的是，匈牙利的抵抗在战败后仍在继续。贝拉四世国王已出逃，尽管匈牙利本土的防御工事薄弱，但守军仍坚持抵抗至最后一人。蒙古人虽然在大多数战斗中获胜，却不断累积伤亡——与当时欧洲人的认知不同，他们并非人数无穷的部落联盟，即便是胜利的战役也在不断消耗他们的实力。
And there were many failures as well. Many fortifications did manage to resist the Mongols.
此外，蒙古人还遭遇了诸多失败，许多防御工事成功抵御了他们的进攻。
This was why Mongols placed such a premium on capturing the enemy leader - had they done so, they could have forced Bela IV to order his commanders to surrender. But Bela IV had fled, and so Hungary kept resisting. Few in number and weak though they were, Hungary’s castles made Mongol stay in Hungary extremely uncomfortable. They were haemorrhaging men and time, and the very few stone castles present in the Hungary proper proved invulnerable to Mongol native siege techniques of the time. And once they arrived to southern Croatia, basically every hill had such a castle, or a well-fortified city. Split, Klis, Trogir and Šibenik either resisted the Mongol assault or Mongols gave up attempting to attack in the first place, and a minor Mongol detachment may have been destroyed at the Battle of Grobnik Field in an ambush.
这就是蒙古人如此重视擒获敌方领袖的原因——若能成功擒获贝拉四世，他们便能迫使他下令指挥官投降。但由于贝拉四世已出逃，匈牙利的抵抗得以持续。尽管匈牙利的城堡数量稀少且防御薄弱，却让蒙古人在匈牙利的驻军处境极为艰难。他们在人员和时间上不断遭受损失，而匈牙利本土仅有的几座石制城堡，被证明是当时蒙古人本土攻城技术无法攻克的。当他们抵达克罗地亚南部后，几乎每座山丘都有这样的城堡或防御坚固的城市，斯普利特、克利斯、特罗吉尔和希贝尼克要么成功抵御了蒙古人的进攻，要么蒙古人一开始就放弃了进攻尝试，一支蒙古小分遣队甚至可能在格罗布尼克原野战役中遭伏击被歼灭。
To put it simply, Hungary had proven too far away from Mongol mainland and too well fortified to be conquered by the Mongols. And Western Europe had all of these issues, but an order of magnitude worse. Instead of few stone castles and a mass of small wooden commital forts, Western Europe was a place where each hill had its own castle and each castle had its own hill. Few Western knights present at Mohi had inflicted heavy casualties on the Mongols, and Europe had far more heavy cavalry than the still primitive Hungary did. And European crossbow was a weapon that Mongols were extremely afraid of in particular - smaller than the Chinese version, but much better able to be used in sieges. All these factors meant that the Mongols decided to put a halt on any attempt at further westward expansion after their invasions of Hungary and Poland had failed - though Hungary would be invaded again in 1285, and Poland in 1259 and 1287, all to a resounding lack of success.
简而言之，匈牙利被证明距离蒙古本土过于遥远，且防御工事坚固，难以被蒙古人征服。而西欧不仅存在所有这些问题，情况还要严重一个量级。与匈牙利仅有少量石制城堡和大量小型木制封臣堡垒不同，西欧的每座山丘都有自己的城堡，每座城堡都占据一座山丘。参与莫希战役的少数西欧骑士给蒙古人造成了沉重伤亡，而且西欧的重骑兵数量远多于尚处原始阶段的匈牙利。此外，欧洲弩是蒙古人特别惧怕的武器——它比中国弩更小，却更适合用于围城战。所有这些因素意味着，在入侵匈牙利和波兰失败后，蒙古人决定停止进一步向西扩张的任何尝试——不过匈牙利在1285年、波兰在1259年和1287年再次遭到入侵，但均以彻底失败告终。
Robert Sarracino Ph.D., Physics
罗伯特·萨拉西诺 物理学博士
Europe would have most likely suffered ‘a nasty ravage’, but there were three major problems for the Mongols in trying to move west from Hungary: the lack of suitable fodder for Mongolian horses in forested Europe, the invincibility of stone fortresses to Mongol attacks, and the power of heavily armored European knights.
欧洲很可能会遭受“一场可怕的蹂躏”，但蒙古人从匈牙利向西推进面临三大主要问题：森林密布的欧洲缺乏适合蒙古马的饲料、石制城堡对蒙古人的进攻坚不可摧，以及全副武装的欧洲骑士战斗力强劲。
After Bela IV’s devastating defeat, in 1241–42, knowing that the Mongols would some day return, he instituted a number of military and social reforms. Among them, he began building stone fortresses, and increasing the number of armored knights in the military.
1241至1242年贝拉四世遭受惨败后，深知蒙古人终有一天会卷土重来，于是推行了一系列军事和社会改革，包括开始建造石制城堡，并增加军队中装甲骑士的数量。
Some 43 years later the Mongols returned, and this time, although as before the civilian population suffered heavily in eastern and central Hungary, the Mongols suffered a devastating defeat. Not one stone castle or city fell to the Mongols. Locally organized raids and sallies from these impregnable fortresses and cities caused havoc among the Mongols, and they finally retreated, their forces decimated.
约43年后，蒙古人果然再次入侵，这一次，尽管匈牙利东部和中部的平民仍遭受了沉重苦难，但蒙古人却遭遇了毁灭性的失败。没有一座石制城堡或城市被蒙古人攻占，来自这些坚不可摧的堡垒和城市的地方组织突袭与出击，给蒙古人造成了极大破坏，他们最终撤军，兵力损失惨重。
Martin Lloyd MA in History, Liverpool Hope University (Graduated 2014)
马丁·劳埃德 利物浦霍普大学历史学硕士（2014年毕业）
How easy do you think it is to conquer an entire continent?
你认为征服整个大陆是件容易的事吗？
It’s like saying after conquering Thailand that someone could then conquer all of Asia.
The Mongols defeated the Hungarian field army, plundered everywhere that wasn’t sufficiently well fortified, and was on their way out.
There’s a video outlining 4 main theories for why the Mongols left Europe.
这就好比说征服泰国后，就能接着征服整个亚洲一样。
蒙古人击败了匈牙利的野战军，洗劫了所有防御不够坚固的地方，随后便撤军了。
有一段视频概述了蒙古人撤离欧洲的四种主要理论。
Political - death of Ogedai Khan in December 1241 meant Batu Khan & Subutai had to leave to choose the next Great Khan (I don’t believe it - Batu Khan left Europe before he knew about it, and then actively avoided going for choosing the next Great Khan).
政治因素——1241年12月窝阔台汗去世，意味着拔都汗和速不台必须撤军返回参与推选下一任大汗（我不认同这一说法——拔都汗在得知窝阔台汗去世前就已离开欧洲，且之后主动回避了大汗推选）。
Ecological/Geographical - Mongols struggled with terrain for the journey, such as insufficient grassland for their livestock (I think the Mongols have handled worse).
生态/地理因素——蒙古人在行军途中受地形困扰，例如缺乏足够的牧场喂养牲畜（我认为蒙古人曾应对过更恶劣的情况）。
Limited Goals or Gradual Conquest - The Mongol invasion force was never really intended to conquer all of Europe (this I think is the most plausible - many of the places in Europe the Mongols attacked were in positions of weakness: Poland was fragmented, the Byzantine Empire had not recovered from the 1204 Sack of Constantinople and was in a civil war with the Latin Empire until at least 1260, Hungary made military reforms after the Mongol invasions that look like they were demilitarized before - so I think the Mongols were mostly taking advantage of weaker areas, they didn’t seem to try very hard to advance into the Holy Roman Empire).
目标有限或渐进式征服——蒙古入侵军从未真正打算征服整个欧洲（我认为这一说法最可信——蒙古人在欧洲进攻的许多地区都处于弱势地位：波兰四分五裂，拜占庭帝国尚未从1204年君士坦丁堡被洗劫的创伤中恢复，且与拉丁帝国的内战至少持续至1260年，匈牙利在蒙古入侵后推行的军事改革表明其此前近乎解除了武装——因此我认为蒙古人主要是在利用弱势地区，他们似乎并未全力向神圣罗马帝国推进）。
Military Weakness - Resistance & losses from the campaign caused the Mongols to stop the campaign (I think there’s a little bit of this - nobody defeated the Mongols, but Mohi was a near thing, and Legnica seemed to have Mongol casualties, they can win every battle and still be taking losses).
My view is the Mongol goal was never “conquer all of Europe at once.”
军事弱点——战役中的抵抗与损失导致蒙古人停止进攻（我认为这一因素有一定影响——虽然无人击败蒙古人，但莫希战役胜负仅在一线之间，莱格尼察战役中蒙古人似乎也出现伤亡，即便他们赢得每一场战斗，仍会遭受损失）。
我的观点是，蒙古人的目标从未是“一次性征服整个欧洲”。
Part of the Mongol success was they planned out their invasions meticulously, they conducted campaigns of espionage, they knew where they were going and why, they knew more about their foes than their foes knew of them, they knew the language (one trick was they sent people shouting to retreat in Hungarian, so presumably at least some of them knew the language, or they had sufficiently good control over people who did).
蒙古人成功的部分原因在于他们精心策划入侵行动，开展间谍活动，明确进军方向与目的，对敌人的了解远超敌人对他们的了解，还掌握了敌方语言（其中一个战术是派人大喊匈牙利语让敌军撤退，因此推测至少有部分蒙古人懂匈牙利语，或他们能充分掌控懂该语言的人）。
So they had done their homework before their invasions, they spent years. Just because they were so well-prepared to invade the places they did, doesn’t mean they were quite so well-prepared to invade the next kingdom. I think their encounters with the Holy Roman Empire were only probing strike - testing for weakness.
因此，他们在入侵前做了多年的准备工作。但这并不意味着，他们对已入侵地区准备充分，就对下一个王国也同样准备就绪。我认为他们与神圣罗马帝国的接触只是试探性进攻——旨在测试对方的弱点。
In short, the Mongols knew the weaknesses of most of their targets before they invaded, and so keeping up a rapid pace of invasion would mean neglecting many of the things that made them so successful.
简而言之，蒙古人在入侵前就了解大多数目标的弱点，因此保持快速入侵节奏意味着会忽略许多使其成功的关键因素。
Mats Andersson Common or Garden Armchair Historian
马茨·安德森 普通业余历史学家
No.
Their method of warfare was 100% dependent on horses. They could conquer any place with large amounts of grass. At the time, Central Europe was mostly forest, and could not sustain a marauding horde on horseback. Hungary is the westernmost place in Europe with large grass plains. The large forests of present-day Germany, or the Alps and Carpathians, were completely impassable to the Mongols.
不能。
他们的作战方式完全依赖马匹，只能征服拥有大量草地的地区。当时的中欧大部分地区为森林，无法养活一支骑马劫掠的部落联盟。匈牙利是欧洲最西端拥有大片草原的地区，如今德国的广阔森林、阿尔卑斯山脉和喀尔巴阡山脉，对蒙古人来说完全无法通行。
There were additional factors that ended their conquest, such as the death of the Great Khan, but even absence of those factors would not have meant presence of grass.
还有其他因素导致他们的征服终止，例如大汗去世，但即便没有这些因素，欧洲也缺乏足够的草地供其马匹生存。
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