纵观全球历史，古代游牧民族最大的对手是谁？在对抗游牧民族过程中谁表现最佳？
正文翻译
Fontaine
Throughout history, the biggest enemy of nomadic peoples has undoubtedly been the ancient Chinese, not the Europeans.
游牧民族历史上最大的对手无疑是古代中国人，而非欧洲人。
(Of course, geographical factors also dictate that Europe could not produce as many nomadic peoples as Asia.)
（当然，地理因素也决定了欧洲无法像亚洲那样产生大量游牧民族。）
If you were to ask who has been the most effective and successful in war with nomadic peoples, it would undoubtedly be the ancient Chinese.
如果你要问谁在对抗游牧民族的战争中最为有效和成功，那毫无疑问是古代中国人。
Throughout thousands of years of history, as long as the Chinese dynasty itself was not in serious internal turmoil, nomadic peoples had virtually no chance and would surrender to the Chinese dynasty. However, when the Chinese dynasty was in serious internal turmoil, some nomadic tribes previously ruled by China would seize the opportunity to rise up and establish regimes in certain parts of China.
几千年来，只要中原王朝自身没有陷入严重的内乱，游牧民族几乎毫无胜算，最终都会向中原王朝臣服。然而，当中原王朝陷入严重内部动荡时，一些此前受中国统治的游牧部落便会趁机崛起，并在中国部分地区建立政权。
Of course, the only nomadic people who truly succeeded in conquering China were the Mongols (the Manchus were not nomadic), but even at their peak, the Mongols faced immense difficulties against the Chinese dynasty. It took them nearly half a century to conquer the Southern Song Dynasty, which covered only 1.8 million square kilometers. (This isn't even the peak of the Song Dynasty.)
当然，真正成功征服全中国的游牧民族只有蒙古人（满洲人并不属于游牧民族），但即便在其巅峰时期，蒙古人面对中原王朝也遭遇了巨大困难。他们花了将近半个世纪才征服仅拥有180万平方公里领土的南宋。（这甚至还不是宋朝最强盛时期的版图。）
For thousands of years, various nomadic peoples waged countless wars against various Chinese dynasties. This, of course, was also an inevitable consequence of geopolitical forces. Here's a map of China. We can see that, aside from traditional Han Chinese areas like Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet, everything is a desolate Gobi desert or grassland.
数千年来，各游牧民族与各个中原王朝之间爆发了无数次战争。这当然也是地缘政治力量不可避免的结果。这里有一张中国地图，我们可以看到，除了传统的汉族地区外，像内蒙古、中亚和西藏等地区，大多是荒凉的戈壁沙漠或草原。
Nomadic peoples, of course, originated from the grasslands. They were generally considered barbaric in both Europe and Asia. Due to their harsh living conditions, they were relatively backward and poor. Therefore, across Eurasia, they chose to invade and plunder settled civilizations; otherwise, with their backward nomadic civilizations, it would be difficult for them to survive.
游牧民族自然起源于草原地带。他们在欧洲和亚洲都被视为“蛮族”。由于生存环境恶劣，他们的社会发展相对落后且贫困。因此在整个欧亚大陆，他们选择入侵和掠夺定居文明，否则仅靠落后的游牧经济，很难维持生存。
Europe's wars with nomadic peoples were obviously not as numerous as those in China. Moreover, many powerful nomadic empires originated in Asia, not Europe.
For example, genetic testing has confirmed that Attila the Hun's ancestors were Huns from the East, who fled to the West after losing a war against Han China.
欧洲与游牧民族之间的战争显然没有中国那么频繁。此外，许多强大的游牧帝国都起源于亚洲，而非欧洲。
例如，基因检测已证实，阿提拉·匈奴的祖先正是来自东方的匈奴人，他们在被汉朝击败后逃往西方。
For example, the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the Roman Empire, also originated from nomadic tribes in Asia. Of course, the most famous and powerful were the Mongols, the only nomadic empire to achieve great success in both Europe and Asia. (The xiongnu and Turks were both defeated by Chinese dynasties, while the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty; this is the key difference.)
再如，征服罗马帝国的奥斯曼土耳其人，也源自亚洲的游牧部落。当然，最著名且最强大的是蒙古人——唯一一个在欧洲和亚洲都取得巨大成功的游牧帝国。（匈奴和突厥均被中原王朝击败，而蒙古人则征服了宋朝；这是关键区别。）
China first truly unified during the Qin Dynasty (Zhou Dynasty China was more like the Holy Roman Empire, with many states enjoying a high degree of autonomy, though the Zhou Dynasty's royal family was nominally supreme).
中国首次真正统一是在秦朝（周朝时期的中国更像神圣罗马帝国，众多诸侯国享有高度自治权，尽管周王室名义上为最高统治者）。
Coincidentally, the first truly centralized nomadic empire in human history emerged from the steppes during this period: the xiongnu. They frequently harassed China's border regions. Qin Shihuang ordered General Meng Tian to proactively attack and defeat the xiongnu army, leading to the Chinese annexation and rule of part of present-day Mongolia (Ordos). It was also around this time that the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall. (The Great Wall served multiple functions, including logistics, offense, and defense, making it an excellent bridgehead for war.)
巧合的是，人类历史上第一个真正中央集权的游牧帝国也正是在此时期从草原上兴起的——即匈奴。他们频繁骚扰中国的边境地区。秦始皇命令大将蒙恬主动出击，击败匈奴军队，并将今日蒙古部分地区（鄂尔多斯）纳入中国版图。也正是在此时，中国人开始修建长城。（长城具有多种功能，包括后勤、进攻和防御，是战争中的优良桥头堡。）
Although the Qin Dynasty truly unified China for the first time, it was a short-lived dynasty, fading in less than 20 years. At this time, the Han Dynasty emerged (the dynasty that truly established the Chinese people's national identity). After decades of war, China was once again in a state of disarray. The xiongnu, however, returned, and Maodun Chanyu led his army to besiege the vanguard of several thousand men led by Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han Dynasty. The siege lasted seven days and seven nights, but the xiongnu could not find a better solution, and the Chinese felt that the newly established dynasty was not suitable for large-scale warfare. The two sides ultimately signed a peace treaty. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, China had enjoyed several generations of recuperation and its national strength had recovered. The Han Dynasty decisively chose to launch a large-scale invasion of the steppes. After decades of warfare, the xiongnu were completely defeated. The Southern xiongnu voluntarily surrendered to the Chinese, while the Northern xiongnu were pursued and massacred by the Han army, with some fleeing to Europe. (Attila's ancestors were these xiongnu.)
虽然秦朝首次真正统一了中国，但它是一个短命王朝，不到20年便覆灭。随后汉朝崛起（这个王朝真正奠定了中华民族的民族认同）。经过几十年战乱，中国再次陷入混乱。匈奴卷土重来，冒顿单于率军围困了汉高祖刘邦率领的数千前锋部队，围困长达七天七夜。但匈奴未能找到更好的解决办法，而汉朝也认为新建立的王朝不宜大规模开战，双方最终签订和平条约。到了汉武帝时期，中国经历了几代人的休养生息，国力恢复。汉朝果断决定大规模入侵草原。经过数十年战争，匈奴被彻底击败。南匈奴自愿归降中国，北匈奴则遭到汉军追击和屠杀，部分残余逃往欧洲。（阿提拉的祖先就是这些北匈奴人。）
At the end of the Han Dynasty, China was divided into three kingdoms. Cao Wei held the greatest power, but it was eventually seized by the powerful Sima clan. The Sima clan established the Jin Dynasty, but this dynasty was deeply embroiled in internal strife, leading to the historic Eight Kings Rebellion (a civil war among eight members of the imperial family), which led to widespread chaos and a sharp decline in population. As I've mentioned, during this period of intense civil war in China, some nomadic peoples seized the opportunity to rise up and establish local regimes within China. These were the famous Five Barbarians. Of course, many of these barbarians originally lived within the Great Wall, having previously been subject to China. They seized the opportunity presented by the civil unrest to rise up and establish their own regimes.
东汉末年，中国分裂为三国。曹魏势力最强，但最终被强大的司马家族篡权。司马家族建立晋朝，但该王朝深陷内斗，导致历史上著名的“八王之乱”（八位皇族成员之间的内战），引发全国大乱，人口锐减。正如我所提到的，在中国陷入如此严重的内战之际，一些游牧民族趁机崛起，在中国境内建立地方政权。这就是著名的“五胡”。当然，这些“胡人”中许多人原本就居住在长城以内，曾是中国的臣民。他们趁乱起事，建立自己的政权。
China then fell into the famous Southern and Northern Dynasties (with the south generally ruled by Chinese, the north by barbarians), a period of chaos and division that lasted for hundreds of years.
Eventually, Yang Jian, a Han Chinese general serving the Northern Dynasty, successfully usurped power from the xianbei and reunited China.
At this time, the second powerful and large nomadic empire emerged on the steppes: the Turks. Yang Jian was a great general and emperor. Through a combination of warfare and conspiracy, he successfully defeated the Turkic Khanate, splitting it into two. The Eastern Turkic Khanate submitted to China, proclaiming the Chinese emperor the "Sage Khan," while the Western Turkic Khanate remained hostile.
The Sui Dynasty was also short-lived, lasting just over 30 years, before the Tang Dynasty successfully destroyed it.
中国随后进入著名的南北朝时期（南方一般由汉人统治，北方由“蛮族”统治），这是一个持续数百年的混乱与分裂时代。
最终，原为北朝效力的汉人将军杨坚成功从鲜卑人手中夺取政权，重新统一中国。
此时，草原上出现了第二个强大而庞大的游牧帝国——突厥。杨坚是一位杰出的将领和皇帝。他通过战争与谋略相结合的方式，成功击败突厥汗国，并将其分裂为东西两部。东突厥汗国向中国臣服，尊称中国皇帝为“圣人可汗”，而西突厥汗国则保持敌对态度。
隋朝也是短命王朝，仅存在三十多年，便被唐朝所灭。
The Tang Dynasty was far more successful than the Sui Dynasty. Although they were subject to China during the Sui Dynasty, as the Sui Dynasty weakened, both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates became enemies of the Tang Dynasty.
The Tang Dynasty was significantly more powerful than the Sui Dynasty (generally considered China's second golden age after the Han Dynasty). Both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates, as well as the Xueyantuo Khanate, were defeated and destroyed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, virtually all Turkic peoples submitted to and were ruled by the Tang Dynasty.
Although there were rebellions, they were ultimately suppressed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, the Tang Dynasty's territory was immense, encompassing nearly 12-14 million square kilometers. The entire steppes were part of China's sphere of influence. The Khitans and Jurchens, for example, were also Chinese vassals. However, the mid-Tang dynasty experienced the famous An-Shi Rebellion, which led to severe civil war.
By this point, the Tang dynasty's internal control was far less robust than at its peak, and China entered the renowned Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Khitans and Jurchens, once subject to China, seized the opportunity to establish various regimes in northern China, including the Liao and Jin dynasties.
唐朝远比隋朝成功。尽管突厥在隋朝时曾臣服于中国，但随着隋朝衰落，东西突厥汗国都转而成为唐朝的敌人。
唐朝的实力远超隋朝（通常被认为是中国继汉朝之后的第二个黄金时代）。无论是东突厥、西突厥，还是薛延陀汗国，最终都被唐朝击败并摧毁。在其鼎盛时期，几乎所有突厥民族都向唐朝臣服并受其统治。
尽管期间发生过叛乱，但最终都被唐朝镇压。唐朝极盛时疆域辽阔，接近1200万至1400万平方公里。整个草原地带都处于中国的势力范围之内。契丹人和女真人等民族也都是中国的藩属。然而，中唐时期爆发了著名的“安史之乱”，引发严重内战。
至此，唐朝对内部的控制力已远不如鼎盛时期，中国进入著名的“五代十国”时期。曾经臣服于中国的契丹和女真趁机在北方中国建立多个政权，包括辽朝和金朝。
Of course, the Mongols ultimately triumphed. The Khitan regime was destroyed by the Jurchens, who, along with the Song dynasty, were the ruling dynasties of China at the time. The Jurchen Jin dynasty was ultimately destroyed by a joint effort between the Song dynasty, China, and the Mongols, who ultimately conquered the Song. This marked China's first fall and conquest by a foreign power.
Mongol rule in China was brief, lasting only 90 years. During the rise of the Ming dynasty, they massacred Mongols in China on a large scale, repeatedly invaded the Mongolian steppes, and even captured Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire, twice. Even in the middle and late stages of the Mongol War, some prominent Mongol khans still surrendered to China. The Mongols fought over 800 wars against Ming China (over a period of nearly 280 years), with the Chinese winning roughly 65 percent of the time.
最终，蒙古人取得了胜利。契丹政权被女真人所灭，而金朝则在南宋和蒙古人的联合夹击下灭亡，蒙古人最终征服南宋。这标志着中国历史上首次被游牧民族完全征服。
蒙古人在中国的统治仅持续了90年。随着明朝的崛起，明军大规模屠杀中国境内的蒙古人，多次出兵入侵蒙古草原，甚至两次攻占蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林。即使在蒙古战争的中后期，仍有部分著名的蒙古可汗向中国投降。在近280年的时间里，蒙古人与明朝进行了超过800次战争，中国方面赢得了大约65%的战役。
The Ming Dynasty ultimately collapsed due to internal strife, and the Manchus, in collaboration with some Chinese, eventually entered mainland China and successfully established the Qing Dynasty. (Of course, the Manchus were not nomadic, so I won't go into detail.)
明朝最终因内部动乱而崩溃，满洲人联合部分汉人势力进入中原，成功建立清朝。（当然，满洲人并非游牧民族，因此不再详述。）
Fontaine
Throughout history, the biggest enemy of nomadic peoples has undoubtedly been the ancient Chinese, not the Europeans.
游牧民族历史上最大的对手无疑是古代中国人，而非欧洲人。
(Of course, geographical factors also dictate that Europe could not produce as many nomadic peoples as Asia.)
（当然，地理因素也决定了欧洲无法像亚洲那样产生大量游牧民族。）
If you were to ask who has been the most effective and successful in war with nomadic peoples, it would undoubtedly be the ancient Chinese.
如果你要问谁在对抗游牧民族的战争中最为有效和成功，那毫无疑问是古代中国人。
Throughout thousands of years of history, as long as the Chinese dynasty itself was not in serious internal turmoil, nomadic peoples had virtually no chance and would surrender to the Chinese dynasty. However, when the Chinese dynasty was in serious internal turmoil, some nomadic tribes previously ruled by China would seize the opportunity to rise up and establish regimes in certain parts of China.
几千年来，只要中原王朝自身没有陷入严重的内乱，游牧民族几乎毫无胜算，最终都会向中原王朝臣服。然而，当中原王朝陷入严重内部动荡时，一些此前受中国统治的游牧部落便会趁机崛起，并在中国部分地区建立政权。
Of course, the only nomadic people who truly succeeded in conquering China were the Mongols (the Manchus were not nomadic), but even at their peak, the Mongols faced immense difficulties against the Chinese dynasty. It took them nearly half a century to conquer the Southern Song Dynasty, which covered only 1.8 million square kilometers. (This isn't even the peak of the Song Dynasty.)
当然，真正成功征服全中国的游牧民族只有蒙古人（满洲人并不属于游牧民族），但即便在其巅峰时期，蒙古人面对中原王朝也遭遇了巨大困难。他们花了将近半个世纪才征服仅拥有180万平方公里领土的南宋。（这甚至还不是宋朝最强盛时期的版图。）
For thousands of years, various nomadic peoples waged countless wars against various Chinese dynasties. This, of course, was also an inevitable consequence of geopolitical forces. Here's a map of China. We can see that, aside from traditional Han Chinese areas like Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet, everything is a desolate Gobi desert or grassland.
数千年来，各游牧民族与各个中原王朝之间爆发了无数次战争。这当然也是地缘政治力量不可避免的结果。这里有一张中国地图，我们可以看到，除了传统的汉族地区外，像内蒙古、中亚和西藏等地区，大多是荒凉的戈壁沙漠或草原。
Nomadic peoples, of course, originated from the grasslands. They were generally considered barbaric in both Europe and Asia. Due to their harsh living conditions, they were relatively backward and poor. Therefore, across Eurasia, they chose to invade and plunder settled civilizations; otherwise, with their backward nomadic civilizations, it would be difficult for them to survive.
游牧民族自然起源于草原地带。他们在欧洲和亚洲都被视为“蛮族”。由于生存环境恶劣，他们的社会发展相对落后且贫困。因此在整个欧亚大陆，他们选择入侵和掠夺定居文明，否则仅靠落后的游牧经济，很难维持生存。
Europe's wars with nomadic peoples were obviously not as numerous as those in China. Moreover, many powerful nomadic empires originated in Asia, not Europe.
For example, genetic testing has confirmed that Attila the Hun's ancestors were Huns from the East, who fled to the West after losing a war against Han China.
欧洲与游牧民族之间的战争显然没有中国那么频繁。此外，许多强大的游牧帝国都起源于亚洲，而非欧洲。
例如，基因检测已证实，阿提拉·匈奴的祖先正是来自东方的匈奴人，他们在被汉朝击败后逃往西方。
For example, the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the Roman Empire, also originated from nomadic tribes in Asia. Of course, the most famous and powerful were the Mongols, the only nomadic empire to achieve great success in both Europe and Asia. (The xiongnu and Turks were both defeated by Chinese dynasties, while the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty; this is the key difference.)
再如，征服罗马帝国的奥斯曼土耳其人，也源自亚洲的游牧部落。当然，最著名且最强大的是蒙古人——唯一一个在欧洲和亚洲都取得巨大成功的游牧帝国。（匈奴和突厥均被中原王朝击败，而蒙古人则征服了宋朝；这是关键区别。）
China first truly unified during the Qin Dynasty (Zhou Dynasty China was more like the Holy Roman Empire, with many states enjoying a high degree of autonomy, though the Zhou Dynasty's royal family was nominally supreme).
中国首次真正统一是在秦朝（周朝时期的中国更像神圣罗马帝国，众多诸侯国享有高度自治权，尽管周王室名义上为最高统治者）。
Coincidentally, the first truly centralized nomadic empire in human history emerged from the steppes during this period: the xiongnu. They frequently harassed China's border regions. Qin Shihuang ordered General Meng Tian to proactively attack and defeat the xiongnu army, leading to the Chinese annexation and rule of part of present-day Mongolia (Ordos). It was also around this time that the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall. (The Great Wall served multiple functions, including logistics, offense, and defense, making it an excellent bridgehead for war.)
巧合的是，人类历史上第一个真正中央集权的游牧帝国也正是在此时期从草原上兴起的——即匈奴。他们频繁骚扰中国的边境地区。秦始皇命令大将蒙恬主动出击，击败匈奴军队，并将今日蒙古部分地区（鄂尔多斯）纳入中国版图。也正是在此时，中国人开始修建长城。（长城具有多种功能，包括后勤、进攻和防御，是战争中的优良桥头堡。）
Although the Qin Dynasty truly unified China for the first time, it was a short-lived dynasty, fading in less than 20 years. At this time, the Han Dynasty emerged (the dynasty that truly established the Chinese people's national identity). After decades of war, China was once again in a state of disarray. The xiongnu, however, returned, and Maodun Chanyu led his army to besiege the vanguard of several thousand men led by Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han Dynasty. The siege lasted seven days and seven nights, but the xiongnu could not find a better solution, and the Chinese felt that the newly established dynasty was not suitable for large-scale warfare. The two sides ultimately signed a peace treaty. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, China had enjoyed several generations of recuperation and its national strength had recovered. The Han Dynasty decisively chose to launch a large-scale invasion of the steppes. After decades of warfare, the xiongnu were completely defeated. The Southern xiongnu voluntarily surrendered to the Chinese, while the Northern xiongnu were pursued and massacred by the Han army, with some fleeing to Europe. (Attila's ancestors were these xiongnu.)
虽然秦朝首次真正统一了中国，但它是一个短命王朝，不到20年便覆灭。随后汉朝崛起（这个王朝真正奠定了中华民族的民族认同）。经过几十年战乱，中国再次陷入混乱。匈奴卷土重来，冒顿单于率军围困了汉高祖刘邦率领的数千前锋部队，围困长达七天七夜。但匈奴未能找到更好的解决办法，而汉朝也认为新建立的王朝不宜大规模开战，双方最终签订和平条约。到了汉武帝时期，中国经历了几代人的休养生息，国力恢复。汉朝果断决定大规模入侵草原。经过数十年战争，匈奴被彻底击败。南匈奴自愿归降中国，北匈奴则遭到汉军追击和屠杀，部分残余逃往欧洲。（阿提拉的祖先就是这些北匈奴人。）
At the end of the Han Dynasty, China was divided into three kingdoms. Cao Wei held the greatest power, but it was eventually seized by the powerful Sima clan. The Sima clan established the Jin Dynasty, but this dynasty was deeply embroiled in internal strife, leading to the historic Eight Kings Rebellion (a civil war among eight members of the imperial family), which led to widespread chaos and a sharp decline in population. As I've mentioned, during this period of intense civil war in China, some nomadic peoples seized the opportunity to rise up and establish local regimes within China. These were the famous Five Barbarians. Of course, many of these barbarians originally lived within the Great Wall, having previously been subject to China. They seized the opportunity presented by the civil unrest to rise up and establish their own regimes.
东汉末年，中国分裂为三国。曹魏势力最强，但最终被强大的司马家族篡权。司马家族建立晋朝，但该王朝深陷内斗，导致历史上著名的“八王之乱”（八位皇族成员之间的内战），引发全国大乱，人口锐减。正如我所提到的，在中国陷入如此严重的内战之际，一些游牧民族趁机崛起，在中国境内建立地方政权。这就是著名的“五胡”。当然，这些“胡人”中许多人原本就居住在长城以内，曾是中国的臣民。他们趁乱起事，建立自己的政权。
China then fell into the famous Southern and Northern Dynasties (with the south generally ruled by Chinese, the north by barbarians), a period of chaos and division that lasted for hundreds of years.
Eventually, Yang Jian, a Han Chinese general serving the Northern Dynasty, successfully usurped power from the xianbei and reunited China.
At this time, the second powerful and large nomadic empire emerged on the steppes: the Turks. Yang Jian was a great general and emperor. Through a combination of warfare and conspiracy, he successfully defeated the Turkic Khanate, splitting it into two. The Eastern Turkic Khanate submitted to China, proclaiming the Chinese emperor the "Sage Khan," while the Western Turkic Khanate remained hostile.
The Sui Dynasty was also short-lived, lasting just over 30 years, before the Tang Dynasty successfully destroyed it.
中国随后进入著名的南北朝时期（南方一般由汉人统治，北方由“蛮族”统治），这是一个持续数百年的混乱与分裂时代。
最终，原为北朝效力的汉人将军杨坚成功从鲜卑人手中夺取政权，重新统一中国。
此时，草原上出现了第二个强大而庞大的游牧帝国——突厥。杨坚是一位杰出的将领和皇帝。他通过战争与谋略相结合的方式，成功击败突厥汗国，并将其分裂为东西两部。东突厥汗国向中国臣服，尊称中国皇帝为“圣人可汗”，而西突厥汗国则保持敌对态度。
隋朝也是短命王朝，仅存在三十多年，便被唐朝所灭。
The Tang Dynasty was far more successful than the Sui Dynasty. Although they were subject to China during the Sui Dynasty, as the Sui Dynasty weakened, both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates became enemies of the Tang Dynasty.
The Tang Dynasty was significantly more powerful than the Sui Dynasty (generally considered China's second golden age after the Han Dynasty). Both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates, as well as the Xueyantuo Khanate, were defeated and destroyed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, virtually all Turkic peoples submitted to and were ruled by the Tang Dynasty.
Although there were rebellions, they were ultimately suppressed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, the Tang Dynasty's territory was immense, encompassing nearly 12-14 million square kilometers. The entire steppes were part of China's sphere of influence. The Khitans and Jurchens, for example, were also Chinese vassals. However, the mid-Tang dynasty experienced the famous An-Shi Rebellion, which led to severe civil war.
By this point, the Tang dynasty's internal control was far less robust than at its peak, and China entered the renowned Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Khitans and Jurchens, once subject to China, seized the opportunity to establish various regimes in northern China, including the Liao and Jin dynasties.
唐朝远比隋朝成功。尽管突厥在隋朝时曾臣服于中国，但随着隋朝衰落，东西突厥汗国都转而成为唐朝的敌人。
唐朝的实力远超隋朝（通常被认为是中国继汉朝之后的第二个黄金时代）。无论是东突厥、西突厥，还是薛延陀汗国，最终都被唐朝击败并摧毁。在其鼎盛时期，几乎所有突厥民族都向唐朝臣服并受其统治。
尽管期间发生过叛乱，但最终都被唐朝镇压。唐朝极盛时疆域辽阔，接近1200万至1400万平方公里。整个草原地带都处于中国的势力范围之内。契丹人和女真人等民族也都是中国的藩属。然而，中唐时期爆发了著名的“安史之乱”，引发严重内战。
至此，唐朝对内部的控制力已远不如鼎盛时期，中国进入著名的“五代十国”时期。曾经臣服于中国的契丹和女真趁机在北方中国建立多个政权，包括辽朝和金朝。
Of course, the Mongols ultimately triumphed. The Khitan regime was destroyed by the Jurchens, who, along with the Song dynasty, were the ruling dynasties of China at the time. The Jurchen Jin dynasty was ultimately destroyed by a joint effort between the Song dynasty, China, and the Mongols, who ultimately conquered the Song. This marked China's first fall and conquest by a foreign power.
Mongol rule in China was brief, lasting only 90 years. During the rise of the Ming dynasty, they massacred Mongols in China on a large scale, repeatedly invaded the Mongolian steppes, and even captured Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire, twice. Even in the middle and late stages of the Mongol War, some prominent Mongol khans still surrendered to China. The Mongols fought over 800 wars against Ming China (over a period of nearly 280 years), with the Chinese winning roughly 65 percent of the time.
最终，蒙古人取得了胜利。契丹政权被女真人所灭，而金朝则在南宋和蒙古人的联合夹击下灭亡，蒙古人最终征服南宋。这标志着中国历史上首次被游牧民族完全征服。
蒙古人在中国的统治仅持续了90年。随着明朝的崛起，明军大规模屠杀中国境内的蒙古人，多次出兵入侵蒙古草原，甚至两次攻占蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林。即使在蒙古战争的中后期，仍有部分著名的蒙古可汗向中国投降。在近280年的时间里，蒙古人与明朝进行了超过800次战争，中国方面赢得了大约65%的战役。
The Ming Dynasty ultimately collapsed due to internal strife, and the Manchus, in collaboration with some Chinese, eventually entered mainland China and successfully established the Qing Dynasty. (Of course, the Manchus were not nomadic, so I won't go into detail.)
明朝最终因内部动乱而崩溃，满洲人联合部分汉人势力进入中原，成功建立清朝。（当然，满洲人并非游牧民族，因此不再详述。）
评论翻译
Fontaine
Throughout history, the biggest enemy of nomadic peoples has undoubtedly been the ancient Chinese, not the Europeans.
游牧民族历史上最大的对手无疑是古代中国人，而非欧洲人。
(Of course, geographical factors also dictate that Europe could not produce as many nomadic peoples as Asia.)
（当然，地理因素也决定了欧洲无法像亚洲那样产生大量游牧民族。）
If you were to ask who has been the most effective and successful in war with nomadic peoples, it would undoubtedly be the ancient Chinese.
如果你要问谁在对抗游牧民族的战争中最为有效和成功，那毫无疑问是古代中国人。
Throughout thousands of years of history, as long as the Chinese dynasty itself was not in serious internal turmoil, nomadic peoples had virtually no chance and would surrender to the Chinese dynasty. However, when the Chinese dynasty was in serious internal turmoil, some nomadic tribes previously ruled by China would seize the opportunity to rise up and establish regimes in certain parts of China.
几千年来，只要中原王朝自身没有陷入严重的内乱，游牧民族几乎毫无胜算，最终都会向中原王朝臣服。然而，当中原王朝陷入严重内部动荡时，一些此前受中国统治的游牧部落便会趁机崛起，并在中国部分地区建立政权。
Of course, the only nomadic people who truly succeeded in conquering China were the Mongols (the Manchus were not nomadic), but even at their peak, the Mongols faced immense difficulties against the Chinese dynasty. It took them nearly half a century to conquer the Southern Song Dynasty, which covered only 1.8 million square kilometers. (This isn't even the peak of the Song Dynasty.)
当然，真正成功征服全中国的游牧民族只有蒙古人（满洲人并不属于游牧民族），但即便在其巅峰时期，蒙古人面对中原王朝也遭遇了巨大困难。他们花了将近半个世纪才征服仅拥有180万平方公里领土的南宋。（这甚至还不是宋朝最强盛时期的版图。）
For thousands of years, various nomadic peoples waged countless wars against various Chinese dynasties. This, of course, was also an inevitable consequence of geopolitical forces. Here's a map of China. We can see that, aside from traditional Han Chinese areas like Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet, everything is a desolate Gobi desert or grassland.
数千年来，各游牧民族与各个中原王朝之间爆发了无数次战争。这当然也是地缘政治力量不可避免的结果。这里有一张中国地图，我们可以看到，除了传统的汉族地区外，像内蒙古、中亚和西藏等地区，大多是荒凉的戈壁沙漠或草原。
Nomadic peoples, of course, originated from the grasslands. They were generally considered barbaric in both Europe and Asia. Due to their harsh living conditions, they were relatively backward and poor. Therefore, across Eurasia, they chose to invade and plunder settled civilizations; otherwise, with their backward nomadic civilizations, it would be difficult for them to survive.
游牧民族自然起源于草原地带。他们在欧洲和亚洲都被视为“蛮族”。由于生存环境恶劣，他们的社会发展相对落后且贫困。因此在整个欧亚大陆，他们选择入侵和掠夺定居文明，否则仅靠落后的游牧经济，很难维持生存。
Europe's wars with nomadic peoples were obviously not as numerous as those in China. Moreover, many powerful nomadic empires originated in Asia, not Europe.
For example, genetic testing has confirmed that Attila the Hun's ancestors were Huns from the East, who fled to the West after losing a war against Han China.
欧洲与游牧民族之间的战争显然没有中国那么频繁。此外，许多强大的游牧帝国都起源于亚洲，而非欧洲。
例如，基因检测已证实，阿提拉·匈奴的祖先正是来自东方的匈奴人，他们在被汉朝击败后逃往西方。
For example, the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the Roman Empire, also originated from nomadic tribes in Asia. Of course, the most famous and powerful were the Mongols, the only nomadic empire to achieve great success in both Europe and Asia. (The xiongnu and Turks were both defeated by Chinese dynasties, while the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty; this is the key difference.)
再如，征服罗马帝国的奥斯曼土耳其人，也源自亚洲的游牧部落。当然，最著名且最强大的是蒙古人——唯一一个在欧洲和亚洲都取得巨大成功的游牧帝国。（匈奴和突厥均被中原王朝击败，而蒙古人则征服了宋朝；这是关键区别。）
China first truly unified during the Qin Dynasty (Zhou Dynasty China was more like the Holy Roman Empire, with many states enjoying a high degree of autonomy, though the Zhou Dynasty's royal family was nominally supreme).
中国首次真正统一是在秦朝（周朝时期的中国更像神圣罗马帝国，众多诸侯国享有高度自治权，尽管周王室名义上为最高统治者）。
Coincidentally, the first truly centralized nomadic empire in human history emerged from the steppes during this period: the xiongnu. They frequently harassed China's border regions. Qin Shihuang ordered General Meng Tian to proactively attack and defeat the xiongnu army, leading to the Chinese annexation and rule of part of present-day Mongolia (Ordos). It was also around this time that the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall. (The Great Wall served multiple functions, including logistics, offense, and defense, making it an excellent bridgehead for war.)
巧合的是，人类历史上第一个真正中央集权的游牧帝国也正是在此时期从草原上兴起的——即匈奴。他们频繁骚扰中国的边境地区。秦始皇命令大将蒙恬主动出击，击败匈奴军队，并将今日蒙古部分地区（鄂尔多斯）纳入中国版图。也正是在此时，中国人开始修建长城。（长城具有多种功能，包括后勤、进攻和防御，是战争中的优良桥头堡。）
Although the Qin Dynasty truly unified China for the first time, it was a short-lived dynasty, fading in less than 20 years. At this time, the Han Dynasty emerged (the dynasty that truly established the Chinese people's national identity). After decades of war, China was once again in a state of disarray. The xiongnu, however, returned, and Maodun Chanyu led his army to besiege the vanguard of several thousand men led by Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han Dynasty. The siege lasted seven days and seven nights, but the xiongnu could not find a better solution, and the Chinese felt that the newly established dynasty was not suitable for large-scale warfare. The two sides ultimately signed a peace treaty. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, China had enjoyed several generations of recuperation and its national strength had recovered. The Han Dynasty decisively chose to launch a large-scale invasion of the steppes. After decades of warfare, the xiongnu were completely defeated. The Southern xiongnu voluntarily surrendered to the Chinese, while the Northern xiongnu were pursued and massacred by the Han army, with some fleeing to Europe. (Attila's ancestors were these xiongnu.)
虽然秦朝首次真正统一了中国，但它是一个短命王朝，不到20年便覆灭。随后汉朝崛起（这个王朝真正奠定了中华民族的民族认同）。经过几十年战乱，中国再次陷入混乱。匈奴卷土重来，冒顿单于率军围困了汉高祖刘邦率领的数千前锋部队，围困长达七天七夜。但匈奴未能找到更好的解决办法，而汉朝也认为新建立的王朝不宜大规模开战，双方最终签订和平条约。到了汉武帝时期，中国经历了几代人的休养生息，国力恢复。汉朝果断决定大规模入侵草原。经过数十年战争，匈奴被彻底击败。南匈奴自愿归降中国，北匈奴则遭到汉军追击和屠杀，部分残余逃往欧洲。（阿提拉的祖先就是这些北匈奴人。）
At the end of the Han Dynasty, China was divided into three kingdoms. Cao Wei held the greatest power, but it was eventually seized by the powerful Sima clan. The Sima clan established the Jin Dynasty, but this dynasty was deeply embroiled in internal strife, leading to the historic Eight Kings Rebellion (a civil war among eight members of the imperial family), which led to widespread chaos and a sharp decline in population. As I've mentioned, during this period of intense civil war in China, some nomadic peoples seized the opportunity to rise up and establish local regimes within China. These were the famous Five Barbarians. Of course, many of these barbarians originally lived within the Great Wall, having previously been subject to China. They seized the opportunity presented by the civil unrest to rise up and establish their own regimes.
东汉末年，中国分裂为三国。曹魏势力最强，但最终被强大的司马家族篡权。司马家族建立晋朝，但该王朝深陷内斗，导致历史上著名的“八王之乱”（八位皇族成员之间的内战），引发全国大乱，人口锐减。正如我所提到的，在中国陷入如此严重的内战之际，一些游牧民族趁机崛起，在中国境内建立地方政权。这就是著名的“五胡”。当然，这些“胡人”中许多人原本就居住在长城以内，曾是中国的臣民。他们趁乱起事，建立自己的政权。
China then fell into the famous Southern and Northern Dynasties (with the south generally ruled by Chinese, the north by barbarians), a period of chaos and division that lasted for hundreds of years.
Eventually, Yang Jian, a Han Chinese general serving the Northern Dynasty, successfully usurped power from the xianbei and reunited China.
At this time, the second powerful and large nomadic empire emerged on the steppes: the Turks. Yang Jian was a great general and emperor. Through a combination of warfare and conspiracy, he successfully defeated the Turkic Khanate, splitting it into two. The Eastern Turkic Khanate submitted to China, proclaiming the Chinese emperor the "Sage Khan," while the Western Turkic Khanate remained hostile.
The Sui Dynasty was also short-lived, lasting just over 30 years, before the Tang Dynasty successfully destroyed it.
中国随后进入著名的南北朝时期（南方一般由汉人统治，北方由“蛮族”统治），这是一个持续数百年的混乱与分裂时代。
最终，原为北朝效力的汉人将军杨坚成功从鲜卑人手中夺取政权，重新统一中国。
此时，草原上出现了第二个强大而庞大的游牧帝国——突厥。杨坚是一位杰出的将领和皇帝。他通过战争与谋略相结合的方式，成功击败突厥汗国，并将其分裂为东西两部。东突厥汗国向中国臣服，尊称中国皇帝为“圣人可汗”，而西突厥汗国则保持敌对态度。
隋朝也是短命王朝，仅存在三十多年，便被唐朝所灭。
The Tang Dynasty was far more successful than the Sui Dynasty. Although they were subject to China during the Sui Dynasty, as the Sui Dynasty weakened, both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates became enemies of the Tang Dynasty.
The Tang Dynasty was significantly more powerful than the Sui Dynasty (generally considered China's second golden age after the Han Dynasty). Both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates, as well as the Xueyantuo Khanate, were defeated and destroyed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, virtually all Turkic peoples submitted to and were ruled by the Tang Dynasty.
Although there were rebellions, they were ultimately suppressed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, the Tang Dynasty's territory was immense, encompassing nearly 12-14 million square kilometers. The entire steppes were part of China's sphere of influence. The Khitans and Jurchens, for example, were also Chinese vassals. However, the mid-Tang dynasty experienced the famous An-Shi Rebellion, which led to severe civil war.
By this point, the Tang dynasty's internal control was far less robust than at its peak, and China entered the renowned Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Khitans and Jurchens, once subject to China, seized the opportunity to establish various regimes in northern China, including the Liao and Jin dynasties.
唐朝远比隋朝成功。尽管突厥在隋朝时曾臣服于中国，但随着隋朝衰落，东西突厥汗国都转而成为唐朝的敌人。
唐朝的实力远超隋朝（通常被认为是中国继汉朝之后的第二个黄金时代）。无论是东突厥、西突厥，还是薛延陀汗国，最终都被唐朝击败并摧毁。在其鼎盛时期，几乎所有突厥民族都向唐朝臣服并受其统治。
尽管期间发生过叛乱，但最终都被唐朝镇压。唐朝极盛时疆域辽阔，接近1200万至1400万平方公里。整个草原地带都处于中国的势力范围之内。契丹人和女真人等民族也都是中国的藩属。然而，中唐时期爆发了著名的“安史之乱”，引发严重内战。
至此，唐朝对内部的控制力已远不如鼎盛时期，中国进入著名的“五代十国”时期。曾经臣服于中国的契丹和女真趁机在北方中国建立多个政权，包括辽朝和金朝。
Of course, the Mongols ultimately triumphed. The Khitan regime was destroyed by the Jurchens, who, along with the Song dynasty, were the ruling dynasties of China at the time. The Jurchen Jin dynasty was ultimately destroyed by a joint effort between the Song dynasty, China, and the Mongols, who ultimately conquered the Song. This marked China's first fall and conquest by a foreign power.
Mongol rule in China was brief, lasting only 90 years. During the rise of the Ming dynasty, they massacred Mongols in China on a large scale, repeatedly invaded the Mongolian steppes, and even captured Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire, twice. Even in the middle and late stages of the Mongol War, some prominent Mongol khans still surrendered to China. The Mongols fought over 800 wars against Ming China (over a period of nearly 280 years), with the Chinese winning roughly 65 percent of the time.
最终，蒙古人取得了胜利。契丹政权被女真人所灭，而金朝则在南宋和蒙古人的联合夹击下灭亡，蒙古人最终征服南宋。这标志着中国历史上首次被游牧民族完全征服。
蒙古人在中国的统治仅持续了90年。随着明朝的崛起，明军大规模屠杀中国境内的蒙古人，多次出兵入侵蒙古草原，甚至两次攻占蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林。即使在蒙古战争的中后期，仍有部分著名的蒙古可汗向中国投降。在近280年的时间里，蒙古人与明朝进行了超过800次战争，中国方面赢得了大约65%的战役。
The Ming Dynasty ultimately collapsed due to internal strife, and the Manchus, in collaboration with some Chinese, eventually entered mainland China and successfully established the Qing Dynasty. (Of course, the Manchus were not nomadic, so I won't go into detail.)
明朝最终因内部动乱而崩溃，满洲人联合部分汉人势力进入中原，成功建立清朝。（当然，满洲人并非游牧民族，因此不再详述。）
Fontaine
Throughout history, the biggest enemy of nomadic peoples has undoubtedly been the ancient Chinese, not the Europeans.
游牧民族历史上最大的对手无疑是古代中国人，而非欧洲人。
(Of course, geographical factors also dictate that Europe could not produce as many nomadic peoples as Asia.)
（当然，地理因素也决定了欧洲无法像亚洲那样产生大量游牧民族。）
If you were to ask who has been the most effective and successful in war with nomadic peoples, it would undoubtedly be the ancient Chinese.
如果你要问谁在对抗游牧民族的战争中最为有效和成功，那毫无疑问是古代中国人。
Throughout thousands of years of history, as long as the Chinese dynasty itself was not in serious internal turmoil, nomadic peoples had virtually no chance and would surrender to the Chinese dynasty. However, when the Chinese dynasty was in serious internal turmoil, some nomadic tribes previously ruled by China would seize the opportunity to rise up and establish regimes in certain parts of China.
几千年来，只要中原王朝自身没有陷入严重的内乱，游牧民族几乎毫无胜算，最终都会向中原王朝臣服。然而，当中原王朝陷入严重内部动荡时，一些此前受中国统治的游牧部落便会趁机崛起，并在中国部分地区建立政权。
Of course, the only nomadic people who truly succeeded in conquering China were the Mongols (the Manchus were not nomadic), but even at their peak, the Mongols faced immense difficulties against the Chinese dynasty. It took them nearly half a century to conquer the Southern Song Dynasty, which covered only 1.8 million square kilometers. (This isn't even the peak of the Song Dynasty.)
当然，真正成功征服全中国的游牧民族只有蒙古人（满洲人并不属于游牧民族），但即便在其巅峰时期，蒙古人面对中原王朝也遭遇了巨大困难。他们花了将近半个世纪才征服仅拥有180万平方公里领土的南宋。（这甚至还不是宋朝最强盛时期的版图。）
For thousands of years, various nomadic peoples waged countless wars against various Chinese dynasties. This, of course, was also an inevitable consequence of geopolitical forces. Here's a map of China. We can see that, aside from traditional Han Chinese areas like Inner Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet, everything is a desolate Gobi desert or grassland.
数千年来，各游牧民族与各个中原王朝之间爆发了无数次战争。这当然也是地缘政治力量不可避免的结果。这里有一张中国地图，我们可以看到，除了传统的汉族地区外，像内蒙古、中亚和西藏等地区，大多是荒凉的戈壁沙漠或草原。
Nomadic peoples, of course, originated from the grasslands. They were generally considered barbaric in both Europe and Asia. Due to their harsh living conditions, they were relatively backward and poor. Therefore, across Eurasia, they chose to invade and plunder settled civilizations; otherwise, with their backward nomadic civilizations, it would be difficult for them to survive.
游牧民族自然起源于草原地带。他们在欧洲和亚洲都被视为“蛮族”。由于生存环境恶劣，他们的社会发展相对落后且贫困。因此在整个欧亚大陆，他们选择入侵和掠夺定居文明，否则仅靠落后的游牧经济，很难维持生存。
Europe's wars with nomadic peoples were obviously not as numerous as those in China. Moreover, many powerful nomadic empires originated in Asia, not Europe.
For example, genetic testing has confirmed that Attila the Hun's ancestors were Huns from the East, who fled to the West after losing a war against Han China.
欧洲与游牧民族之间的战争显然没有中国那么频繁。此外，许多强大的游牧帝国都起源于亚洲，而非欧洲。
例如，基因检测已证实，阿提拉·匈奴的祖先正是来自东方的匈奴人，他们在被汉朝击败后逃往西方。
For example, the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the Roman Empire, also originated from nomadic tribes in Asia. Of course, the most famous and powerful were the Mongols, the only nomadic empire to achieve great success in both Europe and Asia. (The xiongnu and Turks were both defeated by Chinese dynasties, while the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty; this is the key difference.)
再如，征服罗马帝国的奥斯曼土耳其人，也源自亚洲的游牧部落。当然，最著名且最强大的是蒙古人——唯一一个在欧洲和亚洲都取得巨大成功的游牧帝国。（匈奴和突厥均被中原王朝击败，而蒙古人则征服了宋朝；这是关键区别。）
China first truly unified during the Qin Dynasty (Zhou Dynasty China was more like the Holy Roman Empire, with many states enjoying a high degree of autonomy, though the Zhou Dynasty's royal family was nominally supreme).
中国首次真正统一是在秦朝（周朝时期的中国更像神圣罗马帝国，众多诸侯国享有高度自治权，尽管周王室名义上为最高统治者）。
Coincidentally, the first truly centralized nomadic empire in human history emerged from the steppes during this period: the xiongnu. They frequently harassed China's border regions. Qin Shihuang ordered General Meng Tian to proactively attack and defeat the xiongnu army, leading to the Chinese annexation and rule of part of present-day Mongolia (Ordos). It was also around this time that the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall. (The Great Wall served multiple functions, including logistics, offense, and defense, making it an excellent bridgehead for war.)
巧合的是，人类历史上第一个真正中央集权的游牧帝国也正是在此时期从草原上兴起的——即匈奴。他们频繁骚扰中国的边境地区。秦始皇命令大将蒙恬主动出击，击败匈奴军队，并将今日蒙古部分地区（鄂尔多斯）纳入中国版图。也正是在此时，中国人开始修建长城。（长城具有多种功能，包括后勤、进攻和防御，是战争中的优良桥头堡。）
Although the Qin Dynasty truly unified China for the first time, it was a short-lived dynasty, fading in less than 20 years. At this time, the Han Dynasty emerged (the dynasty that truly established the Chinese people's national identity). After decades of war, China was once again in a state of disarray. The xiongnu, however, returned, and Maodun Chanyu led his army to besiege the vanguard of several thousand men led by Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han Dynasty. The siege lasted seven days and seven nights, but the xiongnu could not find a better solution, and the Chinese felt that the newly established dynasty was not suitable for large-scale warfare. The two sides ultimately signed a peace treaty. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, China had enjoyed several generations of recuperation and its national strength had recovered. The Han Dynasty decisively chose to launch a large-scale invasion of the steppes. After decades of warfare, the xiongnu were completely defeated. The Southern xiongnu voluntarily surrendered to the Chinese, while the Northern xiongnu were pursued and massacred by the Han army, with some fleeing to Europe. (Attila's ancestors were these xiongnu.)
虽然秦朝首次真正统一了中国，但它是一个短命王朝，不到20年便覆灭。随后汉朝崛起（这个王朝真正奠定了中华民族的民族认同）。经过几十年战乱，中国再次陷入混乱。匈奴卷土重来，冒顿单于率军围困了汉高祖刘邦率领的数千前锋部队，围困长达七天七夜。但匈奴未能找到更好的解决办法，而汉朝也认为新建立的王朝不宜大规模开战，双方最终签订和平条约。到了汉武帝时期，中国经历了几代人的休养生息，国力恢复。汉朝果断决定大规模入侵草原。经过数十年战争，匈奴被彻底击败。南匈奴自愿归降中国，北匈奴则遭到汉军追击和屠杀，部分残余逃往欧洲。（阿提拉的祖先就是这些北匈奴人。）
At the end of the Han Dynasty, China was divided into three kingdoms. Cao Wei held the greatest power, but it was eventually seized by the powerful Sima clan. The Sima clan established the Jin Dynasty, but this dynasty was deeply embroiled in internal strife, leading to the historic Eight Kings Rebellion (a civil war among eight members of the imperial family), which led to widespread chaos and a sharp decline in population. As I've mentioned, during this period of intense civil war in China, some nomadic peoples seized the opportunity to rise up and establish local regimes within China. These were the famous Five Barbarians. Of course, many of these barbarians originally lived within the Great Wall, having previously been subject to China. They seized the opportunity presented by the civil unrest to rise up and establish their own regimes.
东汉末年，中国分裂为三国。曹魏势力最强，但最终被强大的司马家族篡权。司马家族建立晋朝，但该王朝深陷内斗，导致历史上著名的“八王之乱”（八位皇族成员之间的内战），引发全国大乱，人口锐减。正如我所提到的，在中国陷入如此严重的内战之际，一些游牧民族趁机崛起，在中国境内建立地方政权。这就是著名的“五胡”。当然，这些“胡人”中许多人原本就居住在长城以内，曾是中国的臣民。他们趁乱起事，建立自己的政权。
China then fell into the famous Southern and Northern Dynasties (with the south generally ruled by Chinese, the north by barbarians), a period of chaos and division that lasted for hundreds of years.
Eventually, Yang Jian, a Han Chinese general serving the Northern Dynasty, successfully usurped power from the xianbei and reunited China.
At this time, the second powerful and large nomadic empire emerged on the steppes: the Turks. Yang Jian was a great general and emperor. Through a combination of warfare and conspiracy, he successfully defeated the Turkic Khanate, splitting it into two. The Eastern Turkic Khanate submitted to China, proclaiming the Chinese emperor the "Sage Khan," while the Western Turkic Khanate remained hostile.
The Sui Dynasty was also short-lived, lasting just over 30 years, before the Tang Dynasty successfully destroyed it.
中国随后进入著名的南北朝时期（南方一般由汉人统治，北方由“蛮族”统治），这是一个持续数百年的混乱与分裂时代。
最终，原为北朝效力的汉人将军杨坚成功从鲜卑人手中夺取政权，重新统一中国。
此时，草原上出现了第二个强大而庞大的游牧帝国——突厥。杨坚是一位杰出的将领和皇帝。他通过战争与谋略相结合的方式，成功击败突厥汗国，并将其分裂为东西两部。东突厥汗国向中国臣服，尊称中国皇帝为“圣人可汗”，而西突厥汗国则保持敌对态度。
隋朝也是短命王朝，仅存在三十多年，便被唐朝所灭。
The Tang Dynasty was far more successful than the Sui Dynasty. Although they were subject to China during the Sui Dynasty, as the Sui Dynasty weakened, both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates became enemies of the Tang Dynasty.
The Tang Dynasty was significantly more powerful than the Sui Dynasty (generally considered China's second golden age after the Han Dynasty). Both the Eastern and Western Turkic Khanates, as well as the Xueyantuo Khanate, were defeated and destroyed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, virtually all Turkic peoples submitted to and were ruled by the Tang Dynasty.
Although there were rebellions, they were ultimately suppressed by the Tang Dynasty. At its peak, the Tang Dynasty's territory was immense, encompassing nearly 12-14 million square kilometers. The entire steppes were part of China's sphere of influence. The Khitans and Jurchens, for example, were also Chinese vassals. However, the mid-Tang dynasty experienced the famous An-Shi Rebellion, which led to severe civil war.
By this point, the Tang dynasty's internal control was far less robust than at its peak, and China entered the renowned Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Khitans and Jurchens, once subject to China, seized the opportunity to establish various regimes in northern China, including the Liao and Jin dynasties.
唐朝远比隋朝成功。尽管突厥在隋朝时曾臣服于中国，但随着隋朝衰落，东西突厥汗国都转而成为唐朝的敌人。
唐朝的实力远超隋朝（通常被认为是中国继汉朝之后的第二个黄金时代）。无论是东突厥、西突厥，还是薛延陀汗国，最终都被唐朝击败并摧毁。在其鼎盛时期，几乎所有突厥民族都向唐朝臣服并受其统治。
尽管期间发生过叛乱，但最终都被唐朝镇压。唐朝极盛时疆域辽阔，接近1200万至1400万平方公里。整个草原地带都处于中国的势力范围之内。契丹人和女真人等民族也都是中国的藩属。然而，中唐时期爆发了著名的“安史之乱”，引发严重内战。
至此，唐朝对内部的控制力已远不如鼎盛时期，中国进入著名的“五代十国”时期。曾经臣服于中国的契丹和女真趁机在北方中国建立多个政权，包括辽朝和金朝。
Of course, the Mongols ultimately triumphed. The Khitan regime was destroyed by the Jurchens, who, along with the Song dynasty, were the ruling dynasties of China at the time. The Jurchen Jin dynasty was ultimately destroyed by a joint effort between the Song dynasty, China, and the Mongols, who ultimately conquered the Song. This marked China's first fall and conquest by a foreign power.
Mongol rule in China was brief, lasting only 90 years. During the rise of the Ming dynasty, they massacred Mongols in China on a large scale, repeatedly invaded the Mongolian steppes, and even captured Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire, twice. Even in the middle and late stages of the Mongol War, some prominent Mongol khans still surrendered to China. The Mongols fought over 800 wars against Ming China (over a period of nearly 280 years), with the Chinese winning roughly 65 percent of the time.
最终，蒙古人取得了胜利。契丹政权被女真人所灭，而金朝则在南宋和蒙古人的联合夹击下灭亡，蒙古人最终征服南宋。这标志着中国历史上首次被游牧民族完全征服。
蒙古人在中国的统治仅持续了90年。随着明朝的崛起，明军大规模屠杀中国境内的蒙古人，多次出兵入侵蒙古草原，甚至两次攻占蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林。即使在蒙古战争的中后期，仍有部分著名的蒙古可汗向中国投降。在近280年的时间里，蒙古人与明朝进行了超过800次战争，中国方面赢得了大约65%的战役。
The Ming Dynasty ultimately collapsed due to internal strife, and the Manchus, in collaboration with some Chinese, eventually entered mainland China and successfully established the Qing Dynasty. (Of course, the Manchus were not nomadic, so I won't go into detail.)
明朝最终因内部动乱而崩溃，满洲人联合部分汉人势力进入中原，成功建立清朝。（当然，满洲人并非游牧民族，因此不再详述。）
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